Chloride In Irrigation Water Research Articles

Groundwater Quality Assessment Using GIS for Agricultural Propose in Molakalmur Taluk, Karnataka

Objectives: To assess the carbonate concentration in relation to calcium and magnesium concentrations and to determine TDS and sodium concentration in relation to other cations. The study’s overall goal is to examine the suitability of groundwater for irrigation/agricultural purposes in Molakalmur Taluk of Chitradurga District, Karnataka, India. Methods: The current study was carried out to analyze the water quality and spatial distribution of physicochemical parameters of groundwater in study area. A total of 92 groundwater samples were collected during the pre-monsoon period; ArcGIS 9.2 was used to create a spatial distribution map based on a geographic information system. The concentrations of various ions like Ca+2, K+1, Cl-1, Mg+2, HCO3 -1, Na+1, CO3 -2, and SO4 -2 were evaluated as per BIS 3025 (2014) and compared to various irrigation standards like Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Percentage of Sodium (%Na), Magnesium Adsorption Ratio (MAR), Kelley’s Ratio/Kelly’s Index (KI), Permeability Index (PI) Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Hardness (TH), Total Salt Concentration, Chloride in irrigation water and integrated standards such as USSL and Wilcox diagram. Findings: During the pre-monsoon period, the majority of the samples in the study area fell into the hard to very hard water category. According to Evaluated water quality indices like SAR, MAR, PI, KI, SSP, Cl and total salt concentration around 5 to 15 percent water samples are not good for agricultural purpose and as per the integrated parameters like USSL and Wilcox the percentage samples that are unsuitable for irrigation is going up to 30 percentage due to presence of higher Electrical conductivity. Novelty: In the study region, there is no perennial river and the main ion chemistry of Molakalmur Taluk’s groundwater has never been investigated before. The present work attempts to study the suitability of water for agricultural purpose. The findings of the study will aid in the collecting of crucial data on groundwater quality in Molakalmur Taluk. The findings of the study could also help groundwater managers and urban planners to restore and improve groundwater quality. Keywords: Physicochemical parameters; Irrigational water quality; Salinity hazard; Alkalinity hazard; Geographic Information System

Alleviatory activities in mycorrhizal tobacco plants subjected to increasing chloride in irrigation water

The effects of presence and absence of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM+ and AM-) fungus (AMF) Glomus intraradices on agronomic and chemical characteristics of field-grown tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) Virginia type (cv. K-326) plants exposed to varying concentrations of chloride 10, 40, 70 and 100 mg Cl L–1 (C1-C4) were studied over two growing seasons (2012-2013). Mycorrhizal plants had significantly higher uptake of nutrients in shoots and number of leaves regardless of intensities of chloride stress. The cured leaves yields of AM+ plants under C2-C4 chloride stressed conditions were higher than AM- plants. Leaf chloride content increased in line with the increase of chloride level, while AMF colonised plants maintained low Cl content. AM+ plants produced tobacco leaves that contained significantly higher quantities of nicotine than AM- plants. AM inoculation ameliorated the chloride stress to some extent. Antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase as well as non-enzymatic antioxidants (ascorbic acid and glutathione) also exhibited great variation with chloride treatment. Chloride stress caused great alterations in the endogenous levels of growth hormones with abscisic acid showing increment. AMF inoculated plants maintained higher levels of growth hormones and also allayed the negative impact of chloride. The level of 40 mg L–1 in combination with arbuscular mycorrhizal can be considered as the acceptable threshold to avoid adverse effects on Virginia tobacco.

Effects of leaching on soil desalinization for wheat crop in an arid region

Leaching is one of the most practical methods for improvement of saline soils and both the quality and the quantity of leaching water play an important role in desalinization of these soils. To determine the effects of different qualities and quantities of leaching water on salinity of drainage water during the growing season of wheat, pot experiments were conducted with a silty clay loam soil, a typical salt-affected soil in an arid region of central part of Iran. The experiment comprised the treatments of three irrigation water salinities (4, 9 and 12 dS/m) and four leaching levels (3, 20, 29 and 37%), using a factorial design with seven replications for each treatment. The results showed that at the beginning of the growing season the drainage water salinity was highest for all treatments. Then it started to decrease and depending on the quality and quantity of leaching water it became nearly constant or continued to decrease until the end of the growing season. The leaching of salts from the soil profile was more efficient during the first few irrigations and thereafter became less efficient. The increase of leaching level had a significant effect on the decrease of drainage water salinity. The comparison with steady-state mass balance of soil salt, sodium and chloride showed that the simple ratio of chloride in irrigation water to chloride in drainage water can be used to estimate the leaching fraction of saline soils with high accuracy.

Long-term effects of saline irrigation water on growth, yield, and fruit quality of 'Valencia' orange trees

Citrus is regarded as a salt-sensitive crop, but its yield response to salinity is affected by variety, rootstock, duration of salt exposure, irrigation management, soil type, and climate. This study quantified the yield response of mature Valencia [Citrus sinensis (L. Osbeck)] orange trees on sweet orange (C. sinensis) rootstock to increased levels of sodium chloride in irrigation water in the Sunraysia area of the Murray Valley in south-eastern Australia. The orchard was planted on a loamy sand and trees were irrigated and fertilised with a well-managed under-tree microsprinkler system. Four levels of salt, ranging from the river-water control (0.44 dS/m) to 2.50 dS/m, were applied over a 9-year period. Overall yield effects were smaller than expected, and did not conform well to the often used bent-stick model. Relative to the control, yield was initially higher (by up to 9%) in the intermediate salt treatments, and 3% lower in the highest treatment. However, relative yields of salinised trees decreased with time, and in the final year of the experiment, yield of the highest salt treatment was 9% lower than the control. Yield increases in the intermediate treatments resulted from increases in fruit number. All 3 salt treatments decreased average fruit weight by 4% and decreased juice content but increased juice sugar and acid content. Salt treatment strongly reduced trunk growth, and the effect increased with time. Our results show that with appropriate irrigation management, soils, and rootstocks, citrus trees can maintain productivity at salinity levels of 2.0 dS/m or more, but fresh fruit profitability is likely to be lower because of a reduction in average fruit size.

Effect of Chloride in Irrigation Water on Oriental (Sun-Cured) Tobacco

ABSTRACT Responses of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) to chloride vary according to tobacco types, cultivars, and methods of fertilization, cultivation, and harvesting used. Until now, research has focused on types other than Oriental. In this work, the effect of chloride concentration (10 to 80 mg L−1) in irrigation water on growth and agronomic and chemical characteristics of Oriental tobacco was evaluated with a three-year (1999–2001) outdoor pot experiment. Whether Oriental tobacco cultivars, aromatic and neutral, respond differently to chloride was also investigated. The results showed that the influence of chloride on growth-development and total cured leaves yield on Oriental tobacco was inconsistent and substantial only in neutral cultivars. The increased cured leaves yield in neutral cultivars with 50 mg Cl L−1 was attributed mainly to the increased size of leaves. Leaf chloride concentration increased linearly with the increase of chloride level in irrigation water, but the leaf chloride concentration and the rate of linear increase were highest in the upper leaves of the plant, and decreased gradually from the upper to the lower leaves. Generally, the optimum chloride level in irrigation water was found to be below 20 mg L−1, whereas the 40 mg L−1 level was the critical upper threshold to avoid adverse effects on Oriental tobacco. The six cultivars showed different accumulation rates of chloride in leaves, and these rates were affected differently by the increased chloride in water. The changes in chemical characteristics examined concerning cured-leaf product quality were minor. The results indicate that one may choose among cultivars, either aromatic or neutral, in order to limit the adverse effects of irrigation with water containing increased chloride concentration.

Effect of chloride in irrigation water and form of nitrogen fertilizer on Virginia (flue-cured) tobacco

One of the main sources of considerable amounts of chloride to soils is irrigation water. The responses of tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum L.) to chloride are varied and inconsistent depending on the tobacco type, variety and methods of fertilization, cultivation and harvesting used. In this work, the impact of the interaction between four chloride levels (10, 20, 40, 80 mg L −1) in irrigation water and three nitrogen fertilizer forms (NO 3–N 100%, NH 4–N 100% and NO 3–N 50%:NH 4–N 50%) on growth, agronomic and chemical characteristics of Virginia tobacco was evaluated over 2 years (1999, 2000) in an outdoor pot experiment. The results showed that the adverse influence of chloride in irrigation water on plant height and number of leaves per plant was already substantial above 40 mg L −1, within 30 days after transplanting. In this period, visual toxicity symptoms of chloride appeared on the lower leaves of plants treated with ammonium nitrogen. In addition, the effect of chloride on flowering time, chlorophyll content of leaves, aboveground fresh weight of plant, total cured product yield and chemical characteristics, depended on the form of nitrogen, with nitrate nitrogen restricting the detrimental effects of chloride in irrigation water up to 40 mg L −1. The reduced yield of cured product at 80 mg L −1 was the result of the adverse effects of chloride on the leaves of the middle and upper stalk position. Leaf chloride concentration was highest in the upper leaves and increased linearly with the increase of chloride level in irrigation water at each leaf position on the stalk and this increase was more rapid as ammonium nitrogen percentage was increased. Chloride increased the concentration of reducing sugars in cured leaves at each leaf position, in all nitrogen forms and nicotine mainly in plants treated with nitrate nitrogen. The changes in total nitrogen and ash content are considered as minimal. We conclude that the optimum chloride level in irrigation water is below 20 mg L −1, whereas the level of 40 mg L −1 in combination with nitrate nitrogen fertilizers can be considered as the upper threshold to avoid adverse effects on Virginia tobacco.

The effect of chloride on four different citrus rootstocks

Seedlings of Troyer citrange [Poncirus Mollata L. Raf. × Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck] (Tro), Citrus volkameriana (Vol), Carrizo citrange [Poncirus trifoliata L. Raf. × Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck], (Car) and Rough lemon [Citrus jambhiri Lush.] (Rie) were tested for tolerance to chloride in irrigation water, ranging from 0 to 1147 mg L−1 chloride, as NaCI. Based on the occurrence of toxicity symptoms on the leaves, Vol was the most tolerant to CI, followed by Rle. Decrease in dry mass of shoots and roots with increased chloride levels again showed Vol to be the most tolerant rootstock followed by Rle. Tro and Car were the most sensitive to chloride. The shoot: root ratio increased with increasing chloride levels indicating that more shoots were produced in relation to roots at increasing chloride levels. The percentage chloride in the leaves showed a constant increase with increasing CI levels to the point where leaf drop occurred.

Field studies of cadmium in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.). III. Response of cv. Russet Burbank to sources of banded potassium

Six field experiments were conducted where Russet Burbank potatoes were grown with banded fertilizer consisting of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and either potassium sulfate (K2S04) or potassium chloride (KCl). At each site, rates of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) were matched as closely as possible for each K fertilizer treatment. At four of the six sites, potatoes grown with K2S04 had tuber and petiole cadmium (Cd) concentrations 20-30% lower than did potatoes grown with KCl. The use of K2S04 instead of KCl appears to offer considerable promise as a means of decreasing tuber Cd uptake. Sulfate ions presumably promote increased soil adsorption of soil and/or fertilizer Cd compared with chloride ions, and so decrease Cd availability. We attributed the lack of difference in tuber and petiole Cd between K sources at two sites to either leaching, chloride in irrigation water, or at one site to a higher than desired rate of NPK fertilizer with the sulfate treatment. Any one of these may have offset decreases in Cd uptake due to the presence of sulfate ions.