Paint Chips Research Articles

Inorganic lead in man's environment: Sources and toxicological significance

AbstractMajor anthropogenic sources of lead in the general population are solder in canned foods and lead in air, originating from auto emissions and various industrial sources. In the US, approximately ten percent of total dietary lead originates from solder. The contribution of airborne lead to total daily lead absorption varies with air lead concentration in a non‐linear fashion. Incremental rise in blood lead concentration decreases progressively with increasing air lead concentration and with the magnitude of blood lead concentrations derived from other sources. Hand‐to‐mouth transfer of lead from dust is a significant added source of lead in young children. Ingestions of flakes and chips of paint is probably still a significant problem when blood lead concentrations are grossly elevated. The major unresolved issue as to toxic effects in children concerns subtle neurobehavioral deficits. As yet, there is no clear knowledge as to the degree of exposure which causes these effects, nor as to the importance of age and duration of exposure as determinants of sensitivity. Occupational exposure, even at relatively moderate levels, causes a decrement in hemoglobin concentration, and reduction in the functional reserve of the kidneys. Recent studies conducted by two groups of investigators in the US indicate that a substantial number of workers in lead smelters have substantial loss of glomerular function as determined by renal clearance of inulin or iothalamate. This effect is probably due to a reduction in renal blood flow. It is most pronounced with long‐term exposure.

Lead contamination in the homes of employees of secondary lead smelters

The lead content of particulates in 33 homes of employees of two secondary lead smelters in different geographical areas of the country was investigated. Employees generally showered before going home and work clothes were laundered by the companies. Despite these hygiene measures, the lead content of particulates in the workers' homes was found to be significantly greater than in samples collected in control homes in the same or similar neighborhoods. Samples were collected by the Vostal method. In one area, a geometric mean of 79.3 μg of lead/towel was found in the workers' homes, compared with 28.8 μg/towel in the homes of workers with no history of lead exposure. In the second area studied, a geometric mean of 112.0 μg was determined in the workers' homes, compared with 9.7 μg in the homes of controls. In the latter area, paint chips, particulates from the sidewalk curb, and settled dust were also collected and analyzed for lead content. Elevated zinc protoporphyrin levels were found in some children of lead-exposed workers, but not among children in control homes.

Increased susceptibility to lead toxicity in rats fed semipurified diets

Rats fed stock diets, like Purina Chow, are known to be relatively insensitive to the toxic effects of lead. The addition of lead acetate (1000 ppm of Pb) to the drinking water of 5-week-old rats for 35 days produced toxicity (decreased growth rate and lead-induced anemia) in rats fed semipurified diet, but not in rats fed Purina Rat Chow (Chow). Blood and tissue lead levels also were higher in rats fed semipurified diet than in rats fed Chow. In order to determine whether rats fed semipurified diet could be used as animal models in the determination of permissible levels of lead in the environment, the susceptibility to lead toxicity of these rats to lead-based paints was tested. The addition of 1% paint chips containing 10% lead octoate to the diets resulted in lead toxicity (reduction in growth rates and hematocrit values) only in rats fed the semipurified diet. Rats fed a semipurified diet that permits normal growth are more susceptible to the toxic effects of lead and can be used more effectively in lead toxicity studies than rats fed Chow.

A Microtome Technique for Sectioning Multilayer Paint Samples for Microanalysis

ABSTRACTA method is presented for handling the problems associated with the preparation of samples for analysis of multilayer paint chips by Infrared Diamond Window Spectrometry. Examples are presented illustrating the use of this technique.

Element Profiles of Automotive Paint Chips by X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry

The complex element interactions and matrix effects encountered in X-ray fluorescence analysis and the variations in pigment distribution in automotive paint samples are taken advantage of during the elemental analysis of paint chips by XF. Element profiles are constructed from the net counts in the Ka. or La. peaks of each element present with the major peak always taken as 100. The term element profile has been chosen as opposed to element ratios since the latter term would imply that the numerical values are an expression of relative concentration, whereas, the element profile corresponds to the spectral presentation displayed on the video readout of the instrument. While the basic elements present in the sample must be regarded as a class characteristic, the element profile has been found to vary for samples taken from different locations on the same vehicle and for samples from different vehicles of the same make, model, year and color. A degree of uniqueness (as yet unquantified) therefore exists in the element profile of a sample which will compare favorably with that of the comparison sample where the two possess a common source and locus of origin.

A Rapid Wire-Loop Method for Determination of Lead in Paint by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

A simple, rapid method is described for the determination of lead in paint. Lead is extracted from paint chips, or liquid paint, into an acidic aqueous solution. Ten microliters of sample solution is transferred onto a platinum-rhodium wire loop, and the solvent is evaporated by placing the loop in a small resistance heater. The loop then is introduced into a premixed acetylene-air flame, and lead absorption at 283.3 nm is measured. Physical and chemical parameters affecting the accuracy and precision of the method are discussed. Accurate determinations of lead are possible for concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 1 µg/10 µl of solution. The wire loop method is adaptable to a simple screening method for analysis of paints in mobile or on-site laboratories.

Soil contamination from lead in paint chips.

Soil contamination from lead in paint chips.

What can Science do for the Law?

In return for presiding in as impartial as possible a manner over meetings of Council of Forensic Science Society, it was decided some three years ago that President should be given opportunity, in alternate years, of delivering to Annual Meeting of Society a Presidential Address. The first of these was duly given two years ago by my predecessor in this office, Dr. Julius Grant, and subject he chose was Towards a New Profession? a title which he posed as a question. Now, one of advantages of being an early speaker in such a series is that one is not restricted by need to avoid topics that have been chosen by earlier Presidents. I have therefore selected title also in form of a question: What can Science do for Law? This is indeed a very wide subject and I shall confine my remarks to a brief review of period since Society was formed in 1959, together with an attempt to look a little into future. Both in my University employment, and as a magistrate, I am unused to consulting higher authority before expressing my opinions, since academic freedom and independence of judiciary are cornerstones of pattern of British society. Neither can I claim to have consulted Council of Forensic Science Society as to what I should say, because I regard independence of such scientific societies as ours, as of fundamental importance to continuing health of Science and development of our democracy, and this requires that there must always be on hand challenges to existing orthodoxy in Science and in Government. For better or for worse then, what I am about to say is entirely at my own responsibility. In opening address which I gave at inaugural meeting of Forensic Science Society at University of Nottingham in 1959 (Patterson, 1960), I attempted a definition of what constituted main objects of forensic science, at least as far as criminal law is concerned. The essence of this was that what Courts frequently wanted was a firm statement about linkage between two objects. For example, did this fibre, paint chip, soil, wood, blood or whatever-something generally in small amount associated with a suspect, the crime sample, come from a particular source known to be connected with a particular crime, the control ? Sometimes a definite answer can be given, but more often all that can be said is that crime sample could have come from control sample. I suggested that number of examples where no clear answer could be given would be reduced by refining methods so that smaller quantitative differences can be detected with certainty, and by search for more subtle and unique links.

Mapping Soils with Color Photographs and Paint Chips!

Mapping Soils with Color Photographs and Paint Chips!

Children and Lead

To the Editor .—I read with considerable interest the article by Dr. Barltrop in the February issue of theJournal(127:165, 1974). The article appears to be an excellent evaluation of current thinking about environmental sources of lead. However, the author states that the very diversity of the studies in progress has a negative aspect in that it tends to divert attention from the continuing problems of lead-based paint in the home. Lead paint remains the major lead hazard for children and is virtually the only source of lead associated with symptomatic poisoning. Some very recently available evidence suggests that other sources of lead besides paint chips may contribute significantly to the daily ingestion of the 1,000μg of lead that Barltrop indicates is sufficient to cause symptomatic lead poisoning if ingestion continues for several months. Colored printed matter (especially reds, yellows, oranges, and greens) has recently been shown to contain

House and hand dust as a potential source of childhood lead exposure.

Blood lead sampling has demonstrated an almost universal low-level elevation in inner-city children. The ingestion of lead paint chips is questioned as the main source of this exposure. Dust containing lead was found on the hands of inner-city children and interior household surfaces in substantially larger amounts than in similar suburban settings. It is possible that children may ingest this lead through typically frequent mouthing activity.

Examination of Automobile Paints by Laser Beam Emission Spectroscopy

Abstract An analysis was performed on 112 paint chips of various colors from wrecked, late model automobiles. A laser beam microprobe was used in conjunction with an emission spectrograph in order to determine the applicability of the laser microprobe in forensic paint analysis and the specificity of the emission spectrograph in paint analysis. The emission spectrograph was employed to determine the relative abundances of elements in the surface layers of the paint chips. The laser microprobe attachment permitted the analysis of very small paint chips and the analysis of the surface layers of the multilayer paint chips. The results indicated that of the 112 paints analyzed (a) 11 pairs of paints which were physically identical could be distinguished by the emission spectrograph, (b) 4 pairs of paints which were physically identical were also identical by the emission spectrograph, and (c) 3 pairs of paints which were not physically identical were identical by the emission spectrograph. From the results it was concluded that, although the elemental composition cannot individualize a paint chip, it is a useful forensic technique when supplemented with a microscopic examination.

X-Ray Analysis of Forensic Samples, Using a Scanning Electron Microscope

Abstract A scanning electron microscope equipped with a wavelength dispersive spectrometer and an energy dispersive analyzer was used to examine paint chips and glasses. Line profiles of the elements in the paint show the non-uniform distribution of the pigments and extenders and, in order to obtain reproducible intensity ratios, a large area of the sample must be scanned. Layer analysis of the paint chip is possible with the energy dispersive analyzer and the resulting elemental profiles can be used to identify the chips. The difference in sodium concentration among the glasses studied provides a means of identifying the glass, but care must be taken to avoid migration of the sodium ions in the glass during electron beam bombardment.

LEAD POISONING–A DISEASE OF OUR TIME

Lead poisoning among children who eat paint chips and other non-food items containing lead is a serious environmental and public health problem. Ingestion of lead can result in irreversible biological effects including mental retardation and even death. Additionally, ingestion of food and water contaminated with lead, and inspiration of lead-polluted air may also bring about detrimental physiological responses, especially to enzyme systems concerned with blood synthesis.This review discusses the lead poisoning problem among children as regards sources of contamination as well as testing methods used to find potential victims of this man-made disease. The amounts and sources of lead found in foods, both raw and processed, and the quantities found in air are detailed. Implications of daily ingestion of small amounts of lead from food, water, and air are discussed.

A NEW TEST TO DETECT LEAD POISONING IN CHILDREN–A SERIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM IN THE INNER CITY

Lead poisoning among children is a serious environmental and public health problem, especially in the inner city. Some children eat paint chips containing lead and thus become poisoned. A rapid screening test based on urinary delta-aminolevulinic acid and using a dipstick to collect samples was devised so that the mother could take the sample herself. The dipstick is composed of a piece of ion exchange paper stapled to a plastic handle. The research leading to the development of this test is discussed relative to overall environmental problems.

Use of the Microscope in Criminalistics

Abstract The identification of particulate evidence can be divided into 3 groups: individualization (identification as from the same source) virtually impossible, individualization often impossible, and individualization usually possible. The use of comparison microscopes for the study of the wide range of physical evidence available (paper, blood, hair, glass, paint, etc.) should be expanded, considering the wide range of tools and techniques of microscopy available. Specific analytical tests for individualization of typical particulate evidence, paint chips and synthetic fiber, are listed.

A Spot Test for Detection of Lead in Paint

Lead poisoning is one of the most important environmental health hazards in inner-city children today. The disorder almost always results from the child eating chips of paint, putty, or plaster containing toxic quantities of lead. Identification of painted surfaces which contain dangerous quantities of lead is an extremely important part of the household investigation in any case of lead poisoning. Furthermore, paint testing is a valuable means of locating potentially dangerous areas in homes where there are small children. Window sills, walls, and other interior surfaces are pointed out as particularly common sources of lead.1,2 Heretofore, testing of paint samples by spectroscopic methods has been tedious, expensive, and required that specimens be submitted to a laboratory.

REPORT OF SUBCOMMITTEE ON ACCIDENTAL POISONING

LEAD INTOXICATION occurs most frequently in children between 1 and 3 years of age. (In the various series of cases reported in the literature approximately 85% of the cases were first diagnosed in the children in this age range.) For reasons not completely understood approximately 80% of symptomatic cases occur during the summer months. With rare exceptions children exhibiting clinical lead intoxication reside in the older sections of urban areas where they may have ready access to crumbling, peeling or easily chipped paint. Lead pigment paints were widely used for indoor painting until approximately 25 years ago. Lead pigments are still found in exterior paints, particularly those specified as mildew suppressants. Since the absorption of lead from the intestine proceeds slowly a child must nibble upon these flakes for several months before a quantity of lead sufficient to produce toxic manifestations is absorbed into the body. The child need ingest only a few chips each week; but if he continues this practice for longer than 3 to 6 months the clinical manifestations of lead intoxication to be described may occur thereafter, especially during the summer months. Although a history of pica may be a valuable question to ask in public health surveys, one must not overlook the possibility of pica even when it is denied. It is important for the clinician to realize that mothers may or may not observe their children eating a paint chip now and then. Even when they do see it they may not attribute much importance to the ingestion of the paint. If the clinician strongly suspects the possibility of lead poisoning he should proceed with the necessary laboratory diagnostic steps.

Notes on Physical Evidence in Pedestrian Hit and Run Accidents

The pressure of public opinion generated by a hit and run accident causes an urgency on the part of the investigators which may result in the loss of vital physical evidence. This is true in cases involving fatal accidents as well as personal injury. The investigation starts with the body of the victim. If the victim is still alive, a little planning will prevent the loss of trace evidence that may be present on the body of the victim or on the victim's clothing. The trace evidence usually consists of paint chips and/or paint smears, metal fragments, glass fragments, and an assortment of miscellaneous traces. The first loss of evidence is most often sustained when the body is first moved. The method of preservation of evidence is exactly the same for an injured victim as it is for a dead victim. Before moving the body a clean sheet should be placed on the cot or stretcher which must be as close to

THE EXPOSURE OF CHILDREN TO LEAD

A study of some environmental, behavioral and social factors in the production of lead poisoning in children in an urban community has been reported. Most significant among the environmental data presented were the magnitude of the exposure to lead from repetitive ingestion of small quantities of leaded-paint flakes, and the role of the seasonal factor (summer) in the precipitation of acute lead encephalopathy. The predominance of these two factors may explain the absence of any significant correlation between severity of disease and increments (beyond a minimum of 3 months) in the probable duration of exposure. It was concluded that a child without symptoms but having increased absorption of lead, recognized during the summer months, may progress to severe encephalopathy within a few weeks if the sources of lead are not promptly identified and eliminated. The present studies demonstrate that exposure to lead may be intense in children over 1 year of age living in dilapidated dwellings in which flaking leaded paint is readily accessible. The amounts of lead found in the feces of the poisoned children in the present study exceeded that found by others in the feces of exposed industrial workers. This suggests that the higher incidence of lead encephalopathy among children as compared with adults may, in part, result from their relatively greater exposure. The importance of continued environmental exposure to lead in increasing the incidence of severe permanent damage to the brain among survivors of an initial attack of acute lead encephalopathy was demonstrated. The correlation between the occurrence of such sequellae and re-exposure to lead in patients recovering from mild acute encephalopathy was statistically highly significant. It was concluded that removal of lead from the child's environment is the only adequate protective measure in such cases. The high proportion of children aged 12 to 35 months with average intellectual capacity found among cases of lead intoxication, and the high incidence of unsuspected cases found among 12- to 35- month-old housemates of the index cases demonstrate the importance of the environmental aspect of the problem in urban slum areas. This high incidence of "secondary cases" emphasizes the physician's obligation to examine carefully and promptly all environmental contacts under 3 years of age whenever an index case is found. The developmental factors in the child and the social situations in the home which may intensify the ingestion of lead-containing materials were discussed. While the responsibility of parents to protect their children from environmental hazards is not denied, no mother can reasonably be expected to prevent the repetitive ingestion of a few paint chips when these are readily accessible. As lead is widely used as a paint drier, continued good maintenance of painted surfaces would appear to be more pertinent to the long-range prevention of childhood plumbism than specific limitations on the content of nonpigment lead in fresh paint. The various environmental data all point to the conclusion that, where housing has been permitted to deteriorate, exposure to lead may be of such intensity as to outweigh such individual variables as mental retardation and emotional maladjustments in the child. Such intense exposure is a preventable hazard to normal small children, and, as such, constitutes a public health problem which may be more extensive than has heretofore been thought to exist. Pending the wider availability of better housing, preventive measures will have to be adapted to individual home situations and to the available facilities within a given community. Basic to any preventive program are facilities for the prompt identification and removal of environmental sources of lead, as has been emphasized by others, Equally important is a comprehensive social investigation of the home in order to evaluate the circumstances under which the child obtained toxic quantities of lead and to determine whether the identified sources of lead can be adequately removed, or whether a change of dwelling is required to prevent further dangerous exposure to lead.