Chinook Salmon Spawning Areas Research Articles

Identification of Summer‐Run Chinook Salmon Spawning Areas in the Main‐Stem Columbia River Upstream of Wells Dam, Washington

AbstractSummer‐run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha historically spawned in the Columbia River as far upstream as British Columbia, Canada, but the upstream extent of main‐stem spawning in the contemporary Columbia River has been documented in the tailrace of Wells Dam, Washington. We utilized radiotelemetry and video monitoring equipment between 2011 and 2013 to track wild summer‐run Chinook Salmon upstream of Wells Dam and document any main‐stem spawning sites. Two small spawning areas totaling 3,389 m2 were identified within 1.76 km downstream of Chief Joseph Dam and were used by spawning salmon in each year of the study. Redd deposition totaled 70, 59, and 134 redds in 2011, 2012, and 2013, respectively. When considered with tributary redd counts upstream of Wells Dam from the Methow and Okanogan rivers, main‐stem spawning represented between 1.6% and 2.9% of the annual redd deposition upstream of Wells Dam within each spawning year. Redds were located in depths between 3.7 and 7 m, with spawning occurring between late October and mid‐November in each year. These novel results are the first to detail main‐stem spawning locations of summer‐run Chinook Salmon upstream of Wells Dam and should inform population monitoring metrics, such as annual escapement and prespawn mortality estimates.

Catalog of Chinook Salmon Spawning Areas in Yukon River Basin in Canada and United States

Abstract Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha return to the Yukon River in northwestern North America each summer, migrating to spawning destinations from the lower river to more than 3,000 km upstream. These returns support numerous fisheries throughout the basin. Despite a long history of fisheries research and management, there is no comprehensive account of Chinook Salmon spawning areas in the basin. To address this issue, we cataloged, summarized, and mapped the known spawning areas of Yukon River Chinook Salmon by using a variety of sources including published articles, gray literature, and information archived in agency databases. Most of our sources were published within the past 30 y, but some refer to observations that were recorded as long ago as the late 1800s. We classified spawning areas as major or minor producers with three indicators of abundance: 1) quantitative estimates of escapement (major producer if ≥500 fish, minor producer if <500 fish), 2) radiotelemetry-based proportions of annual production (major producer if ≥1% of the run, minor producer if <1% of the run), and 3) aerial survey index counts (major producer if ≥165 fish observed, minor producer if <165 fish observed). We documented 183 spawning areas in the Yukon River basin, 79 in the United States, and 104 in Canada. Most spawning areas were in tributary streams, but some were in main-stem reaches as well. We classified 32 spawning areas as major producers and 151 as minor producers. The Chinook Salmon spawning areas cataloged here provide a baseline that makes it possible to strategically direct abundance, biological sampling, and genetics projects for maximum effect and to assess both spatial and temporal changes within the basin.

Influence of River Level on Temperature and Hydraulic Gradients in Chum and Fall Chinook Salmon Spawning Areas Downstream of Bonneville Dam, Columbia River

AbstractChum salmon Oncorhynchus keta and fall Chinook salmon O. tshawytscha segregate spatially during spawning in the Ives Island side channel of the lower Columbia River downstream from Bonneville Dam. Previous research during one spawning season (2000) suggested that these species selected spawning habitats based on differences in hyporheic temperature and vertical hydraulic gradient (VHG). In this study we confirmed the spatial segregation of spawning based on hyporheic characteristics over 4 years (2001–2004) and examined the effects of load‐following operations (power generation to meet short‐term electrical demand) at Bonneville Dam on hyporheic function and characteristics. We found that during the study period hyporheic temperature and VHG in chum salmon spawning areas were highly variable during periods of load‐following operation, when river levels fluctuated. In contrast, hyporheic water temperature and VHG within chum salmon spawning areas fluctuated less when river levels were not changing owing to load‐following operation. Variable temperature and VHG could affect chum and fall Chinook salmon spawning segregation and incubation success by altering the cues each species uses to select redd sites. Additional research will be required to fully assess the effects of load‐following operations on the hyporheic environment, spawning site selection, and incubation success of chum and fall Chinook salmon downstream from Bonneville Dam.

Effects of river discharge on hyporheic exchange flows in salmon spawning areas of a large gravel‐bed river

AbstractThe flow magnitude and timing from hydroelectric dams in the Snake River Basin of the Pacific north‐western US is managed in part for the benefit of salmon. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effects of Hells Canyon Dam discharge operations on hydrologic exchange flows between the river and riverbed in Snake River fall Chinook salmon spawning areas. Interactions between river water and pore water within the upper 1 m of the riverbed were quantified through the use of self‐contained temperature and water level data loggers suspended inside of piezometers. The data were recorded at 20 min intervals over a period of 200 days when the mean daily discharge was 218–605 m3 s−1, with hourly stage changes as large as 1·9 m. Differences in head pressure between the river and riverbed were small, often within ± 2 cm. Measured temperature gradients in the riverbed indicated significant interactions between the surface and subsurface water. At the majority of sites, neither hydraulic nor temperature gradients were significantly affected by either short‐ or long‐term changes in discharge operations from Hells Canyon Dam. Only 2 of 14 study sites exhibited acute flux reversals between the river and riverbed resulting from short‐term, large magnitude changes in discharge. The findings suggest that local scale measurements may not be wholly explanatory of the hydrological exchange between the river and riverbed. The processes controlling surface water exchange at the study sites are likely to be bedform‐induced advective pumping, turbulence at the riverbed surface, and large‐scale hydraulic gradients along the longitudinal profile of the riverbed. By incorporating the knowledge of hydrological exchange processes into water management planning, regional agencies will be better prepared to manage the limited water resources among competing priorities that include salmon recovery, flood control, irrigation supply, hydropower production, and recreation. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Large‐scale spatial variability of riverbed temperature gradients in Snake River fall Chinook salmon spawning areas

AbstractIn the Snake River basin of the Pacific northwestern United States, hydroelectric dam operations are often based on the predicted emergence timing of salmon fry from the riverbed. The spatial variability and complexity of surface water and riverbed temperature gradients results in emergence timing predictions that are likely to have large errors. The objectives of this study were to quantify the thermal heterogeneity between the river and riverbed in fall Chinook salmon spawning areas and to determine the effects of thermal heterogeneity on fall Chinook salmon emergence timing. This study quantified river and riverbed temperatures at 15 fall Chinook salmon spawning sites distributed in two reaches throughout 160 km of the Snake River in Hells Canyon, Idaho, USA, during 3 different water years. Temperatures were measured during the fall Chinook salmon incubation period with self‐contained data loggers placed in the river and at three different depths below the riverbed surface. At all sites, temperature increased with depth into the riverbed, including significant differences (p < 0.05) in mean hourly water temperature of up to 3.8°C between the river and the riverbed among all the sites. During each of the 3 water years studied, river and riverbed temperatures varied significantly among all the study sites, among the study sites within each reach and between sites located in the two reaches. Considerable variability in riverbed temperatures among the sites resulted in fall Chinook salmon emergence timing estimates that varied by as much as 36 days within a reach, depending on the source of temperature data used for the estimate. Monitoring of riverbed temperature gradients at a range of spatial scales throughout the Snake River would provide better information for managing hydroelectric dam operations, and would aid in the design and interpretation of future empirical research into the ecological significance of physical riverine processes. Published in 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Bedform morphology of salmon spawning areas in a large gravel-bed river

While the importance of river channel morphology to salmon spawning habitat is increasingly recognized, quantitative measures of the relationships between channel morphology and habitat use are lacking. Such quantitative measures are necessary as management and regulatory agencies within the Pacific Northwest region of the USA, and elsewhere, seek to quantify potential spawning habitat and develop recovery goals for declining salmon populations. The objective of this study was to determine if fall Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawning areas in the Snake River, Idaho, USA, were correlated with specific bedform types at the pool–riffle scale. A bedform differencing technique was used to objectively quantify the longitudinal riverbed profile into four distinct pool–riffle units that were independent of discharge. The vertical location of thalweg points within these units was quantified with a riffle proximity index. Chinook salmon spawning areas were mapped and correlated with the pool–riffle units through the use of cross-tabulation tables. The results indicate that 84% of fall Chinook salmon spawning areas were correlated with riffles ( χ 2 = 57.5, df = 3, p < 0.001), with 53% of those areas located on the upstream side of riffle crests. The majority of Snake River fall Chinook salmon spawning occurred at elevations greater than 80% of the difference in elevation between the nearest riffle crest and pool bottom. The analyses of bedform morphology will assist regional fish managers in quantifying existing and potential fall Chinook salmon spawning habitat, and will provide a quantitative framework for evaluating general ecological implications of channel morphology in large gravel-bed rivers.

Habitat quality of historic Snake River fall Chinook salmon spawning locations and implications for incubation survival. Part 1: substrate quality

We evaluated substrate quality at two historic fall Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawning sites in the Snake River, Idaho, USA. The primary objective of this evaluation was to measure sediment permeability within these areas to determine the potential quality of the habitat in the event that anadromous salmonids are reintroduced to the upper Snake River. Riverbed sediments within the two sites in the upper Snake River were sampled using freeze cores and hydraulic slug tests. Sediment grain size distributions at both sites were typical of gravel-bed rivers with the surface layer coarser than the underlying substrate, suggesting the riverbed surface was armoured. Despite the armoured nature of the bed, the size of the largest material present on the riverbed surface was well within the size limit of material capable of being excavated by spawning fall Chinook salmon. The percentage of fines was low, suggesting good quality substrate for incubating salmon embryos. Geometric mean particle sizes found in this study compared to a 55% to 80% survival to emergence based on literature values. Hydraulic slug tests showed moderate to high hydraulic conductivity and were comparable to values from current fall Chinook salmon spawning areas in the Hells Canyon Reach of the Snake River and the Hanford Reach of the Columbia River. Predicted estimates of mean egg survival at both sites (48% and 74%) equalled or exceeded estimates from fall Chinook salmon spawning areas in the Hells Canyon Reach and the Hanford Reach. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Temperature during Incubation as One Factor Affecting the Distribution of Snake River Fall Chinook Salmon Spawning Areas

AbstractSpawning areas of ocean‐type fall Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha in the Pacific Northwest are largely restricted to relatively warm coastal rivers. Fall Chinook salmon spawners in the Snake River basin clearly favor the main‐stem Snake River and the relatively warm lower reaches of its tributaries. In this note, we describe how mean temperature during incubation affects fry emergence date and influences the distribution of fall Chinook salmon spawning areas in the Snake River basin. Using laboratory results and field data, we estimated fry emergence dates for three brood years of fish in seven areas that are consistently used by spawners and in five areas that are rarely used by spawners. Mean incubation temperature was significantly (P &lt; 0.0001) higher in consistently used areas (5.6 ± 0.1°C) than in rarely used areas (4.5 ± 0.1°C). The mean estimated emergence date for the consistently used areas was 12 May (± 20 d), compared with 26 June (± 20 d) for rarely used areas. A logistic discriminant rule fitted from the mean incubation temperatures of the 12 areas discriminated between consistently and rarely used areas with 97% accuracy. We conclude that temperature is one factor that influences the distribution of fall Chinook salmon spawning areas in the Snake River basin.

Use of Aerial Photography to Monitor Fall Chinook Salmon Spawning in the Columbia River

This paper compares two methods of enumerating the redds of chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha and their application to the monitoring of spawning activity. In 1994 and 1995, aerial photographs of fall chinook salmon spawning areas in the Hanford Reach of the Columbia River were digitized and mapped by means of geographical information systems techniques as part of annual population assessments. The numbers of redds visible in these photographs were compared with the counts obtained from visual surveys made from fixed-wing aircraft. The proportions of the total redds in each of five general survey areas were similar for the two enumeration techniques. However, the total number of redds based on aerial photographs was 2.2 times as high as that observed visually in 1994 and 3.0 times as high in 1995. The divergence in redd counts was most evident near the time of peak spawning activity, when the number of redds in individual spawning clusters exceeded 500. Aerial photography thus improved our ability to determine the number of visible salmon redds and to quantify habitat use.

Redd Site Selection and Spawning Habitat Use by Fall Chinook Salmon: The Importance of Geomorphic Features in Large Rivers

/ Knowledge of the three-dimensional connectivity between rivers and groundwater within the hyporheic zone can be used to improve the definition of fall chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawning habitat. Information exists on the microhabitat characteristics that define suitable salmon spawning habitat. However, traditional spawning habitat models that use these characteristics to predict available spawning habitat are restricted because they can not account for the heterogeneous nature of rivers. We present a conceptual spawning habitat model for fall chinook salmon that describes how geomorphic features of river channels create hydraulic processes, including hyporheic flows, that influence where salmon spawn in unconstrained reaches of large mainstem alluvial rivers. Two case studies based on empirical data from fall chinook salmon spawning areas in the Hanford Reach of the Columbia River are presented to illustrate important aspects of our conceptual model. We suggest that traditional habitat models and our conceptual model be combined to predict the limits of suitable fall chinook salmon spawning habitat. This approach can incorporate quantitative measures of river channel morphology, including general descriptors of geomorphic features at different spatial scales, in order to understand the processes influencing redd site selection and spawning habitat use. This information is needed in order to protect existing salmon spawning habitat in large rivers, as well as to recover habitat already lost.KEY WORDS: Hyporheic zone; Geomorphology; Spawning habitat; Large rivers; Fall chinook salmon; Habitat management

Changes in Salmon Spawning and Rearing Habitat from Increased Delivery of Fine Sediment to the South Fork Salmon River, Idaho

Levels of surface and subsurface fine sediment (<4.75 mm in diameter) were measured annually from 1965 to 1985 in spawning and rearing areas for chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tschawytscha and steelhead O. mykiss (formerly Salmo gairdneri) in the South Fork Salmon River, Idaho. Between 1950 and 1965, logging and road construction, in combination with large storm events of 1964 and 1965, resulted in the delivery of increased amounts of fine sediments to the South Fork Salmon River. Surface and subsurface fine sediment levels peaked at 46% of the surface area in 1966 and 48% of the volume in 1969, respectively. A logging moratorium initiated in 1965, coupled with natural recovery and watershed rehabilitation, led to significant decreases in the amounts of fine sediments delivered to and stored in the South Fork Salmon River; this reduction led to a limited resumption of logging operations within the watershed in 1978. By 1985, surface and subsurface sediment levels in chinook salmon spawning areas averaged 19.7% of the surface area and 25.4% of the volume, respectively. However, additional recovery to prelogging fine sediment levels is probably contingent on both further watershed recovery and the occurrence of flood flows capable of transporting material downstream. An equilibrium between incoming sediment from the watershed and outgoing sediment from the river appears to have been reached under flow regimes that have occurred since 1975.