Chinese NGOs Research Articles

Revisiting the gendered ideal worker norm: An ethnography in Chinese non-governmental organizations

ABSTRACT This study revisits the concept of the “ideal worker,” situating it within the context of the re-traditionalization of Chinese gender relations and the contemporary landscape of Chinese NGOs, thereby offering novel insights into the gendered division of labor. The study provides a critical analysis of the feminization of Chinese NGOs, challenging the notion that it represents a progressive social movement. Instead, this study reveals how this trend inadvertently reinforces the intertwined structures of organizational dynamics and gender relations. This study also explores how demanding and low-paid work environments in Chinese NGOs create an imbalance between family and work responsibilities leading to the emergence of “ideal worker” archetypes that represent employees who dedicate long hours to work, with family responsibilities taking a secondary role. These archetypes, embodied by both men and women in actual work settings, are subject to markedly different societal evaluations. While the man ideal worker is often celebrated and rewarded, the woman ideal worker faces criticism for her non-traditional, feminist lifestyle choices. Overall, the study empirically demonstrates the unique formation of the gendered ideal worker in Chinese NGOs and illustrates how gendered norms are perpetuated in both professional and domestic settings.

Becoming Scientific-Environmental Citizens Through Citizen Science in China

This article advocates for a closer study of the forms of citizenship nurtured among individual participants in citizen science (CS) projects by highlighting some salient features of CS in China. Through a detailed examination of the experiences of students participating in the CS activities of a Chinese environmental NGO, it proposes that attention to CS as a means of democratizing science should be complemented by a similar attention to the ways in which CS fosters “scientific-environmental citizenship.” The article argues that these emergent forms of citizenship may be revealed by focusing on the experiences, perspectives, values and skills acquired by participants, and the specific polity in which CS initiatives are situated. This attention to the development of scientific-environmental citizenship as an outcome of CS is particularly valuable in contexts where democratic participation is otherwise constrained, but also yields a more nuanced understanding of citizenship enacted through CS in democratic contexts.

Organisational Learning, Environmental NGOs, and Policy Advocacy in China

ABSTRACT While previous studies have mainly emphasised the role of structural factors in explaining how and why Chinese environmental NGOs (ENGOs) have become more engaged in policy advocacy since the early 2000s, this study offers an alternative perspective on these dynamics by adopting an organisational learning framework. Through in-depth case studies, we identify the production and application of knowledge – specifically regarding the significance, viability, and practical expertise of policy advocacy – as a pivotal driver that compels organisations to proactively engage in policy advocacy. Moreover, we delineate two primary approaches to organisational learning used by ENGOs – intra-organisational learning and trans-organisational learning – and illustrate their internal mechanisms. This study also underscores the significance of individual learning by organisational leaders in the Chinese context, which occurs in parallel with collective learning at the group level. This article thereby enriches our understanding of the trajectory of environmental activism in contemporary China.

Passive cooperation or active coproduction? Grassroots NGOs’ strategies in interactions with government in crisis management in Chengdu, China

ABSTRACT We report an in-depth case study demonstrating Chinese grassroots NGOs’ strategies in interactions with the Chengdu government to manage crises. Our study found that NGOs in Chengdu applied the two strategies via four approaches: passively assisting policy implementation, passively propagating government policies, actively providing professional services delivered unsatisfactorily by government, and actively developing self-governing initiatives for joint action. Moreover, it shows how two dimensions, the organisational dimension, and the internal relationship dimension, influence the selection of strategies NGOs apply in interactions with governments in crisis.

Climate Communication with Chinese Youth by Chinese Nongovernmental Organizations: A Case Study of Chinese Weather Enthusiasts on Bilibili

Abstract Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have increasingly played pivotal roles in shaping climate agendas and mobilizing individuals to engage in environmental initiatives. However, the nature of NGOs’ online interaction with users, especially in developing countries, remains largely unexplored. This study focused on the dynamics of engagement between a Chinese NGO, Chinese Weather Enthusiasts (CWE), and Chinese youth on the social media platform of Bilibili. The research comprised two main components. First, named entity recognition was employed to analyze weather-related terms in CWE’s posts on Bilibili and dynamic topic modeling was utilized to uncover shifts in thematic focus. Subsequently, descriptive analysis and negative binomial regression were employed to investigate the correlation between weather types and user engagement metrics. The study unveiled two noteworthy findings: first, CWE posts are closely linked to short-term weather, providing timely content that may meet the public’s demand for climate information. Second, the engagement of Chinese youth users is not affected by extreme weather types. Future research should continue to elucidate strategies that NGOs can employ to enhance online engagement among youth users. Significance Statement This study seeks to contribute to the current literature of climate communication by investigating how NGOs engage with Chinese youth on social media, an area that has received scant attention thus far. Focusing on an influential Chinese climate NGO, CWE, and its interactions with Chinese youth on the social media platform of Bilibili, this research sheds lights on strategies to communicate information related to extreme weather to this demographic. Examining factors that influence online user engagement offers both theoretical insights about the mechanisms of climate communication and practical implications for NGOs and policymakers to mobilize youth for environmental initiatives. The findings also underscore the importance of tailoring climate communication to align with the daily experiences of the target audience and public-centric approaches in climate communication strategies.

Threads of Influence: Exploring the Nexus of History, Religion, and Culture in Shaping Chinese Women's Political Engagement in Peninsula Malaysia

The multi-ethnic factor has influenced gender-based political parties and culture. Thus, we shed light on how political socialization through indicators of religion, history, and culture influences Chinese women's behavior and political involvement in Peninsular Malaysia. The political participation of Chinese women in Malaysia remains low, as evidenced by the representation of Chinese women in decision-making sectors such as the State Legislative Assembly (DUN) and Parliament. We adopt a qualitative approach through intensive interview techniques with ten purposively selected participants. The primary informants interviewed include female Chinese political representatives, male politicians, academics, and NGO activists. Ultimately, we illustrate how political socialization through cultural, religious, and historical agents influences the political involvement of Chinese women in Peninsular Malaysia. The political culture of Chinese women is not static and has evolved based on contemporary changes before and after independence. The political culture of Chinese women has shifted from referencing Mainland China to survival in Malaya.

Geopolitical strategies and transnational environmental governance: A comparative study of international NGOs in Cambodia

Geopolitical strategies and transnational governance can synergistically interact to meet strategic ambitions and environmental targets. International NGOs and their transnational operations are the heart of these entangled dynamics. This study reveals how geopolitical strategies influence international NGOs and their transnational activities. Drawing on empirical insights from a comparative study of international NGOs (Japanese and Chinese) in Cambodia, we developed two models to elucidate the nature of this relationship. The “tight coupling” model is exemplified by Japanese NGOs that are closely aligned with the Japanese state’s geopolitical focus on soft power in Southeast Asia. This alignment results in strong state support in terms of resources and networking capabilities, enabling the NGOs to conduct long-term environmental work and build relationships with Cambodian communities through deep engagement. The “loose coupling” model is exemplified by Chinese NGOs whose alignment with China’s dominant geopolitical strategy (the Belt and Road Initiative) is relatively weak. Consequently, these NGOs receive limited state support, which restrict their ability to engage with local communities and achieve a sustainable impact. This study breaks new ground by weaving together the fields of geopolitics and transnational environmental governance, offering new insights regarding how to incorporate geopolitical perspectives in examining the roles of non-state actors in global environmental politics.

Government Expenditure and Nonprofit Sector Size: Testing Boundary Conditions for Theories of Government–Nonprofit Relationships With Evidence From Chinese Environmental NGOs

This study explores boundary conditions for the two competing models—supplementary and complementary models—of government–nonprofit relationships within the context of Chinese environmental nongovernmental organizations (eNGOs). Analyses of 8 years of panel data and in-depth interviews reveal the following: First, while the complementary model effectively explains the relationship between government and environmental government-organized NGOs (eGONGOs), the sector size association between the government and civic eNGOs displays a pattern that combines supplementary and complementary models. Second, when predicting the sector size association between the government and civic eNGOs, the complementary model prevails when the government size is small while the supplementary model dominates when the government is large. Third, the complementary relationship persists for a longer duration under certain policy contexts, particularly in cases where direct registration policies are implemented. This study contributes to the literature by complementing recent endeavors to explore potential moderating or mediating effects of government–nonprofit relationship models.

Between co‐optation and emancipation: Chinese women's NGOs and power shifts at the United Nations

AbstractRecent scholarship on China at the United Nations (UN) considers whether there has been a discernible shift in power in China's favour. However, existing analyses predominantly focus on state actors and UN entities, whereas non‐state actors, such as non‐governmental organisations (NGOs), are largely neglected. This article examines the participation of Chinese NGOs in the UN, contributing to the analysis of China's evolving position in global politics. Through the contextualised examination of Chinese women's NGOs' engagement with the UN over the past three decades, the argument contends that there are different types of Chinese NGOs operating in hierarchical and shifting political settings. Despite the Chinese state's attempts to co‐opt NGOs to strengthen its multilateral power base, it is oversimplified to perceive the engagement of Chinese NGOs at the UN as merely serving the interests of the state. Instead, Chinese NGOs play multifaceted roles that are shaped by their relationship with the state, as they deploy different strategies to navigate political space both at the UN and domestically. Although the Chinese government continues to dominate state‐NGO relations, at the UN and elsewhere, there are a few instances where UN fora have provided Chinese NGOs with precarious but increased room for manoeuvre vis‐à‐vis the state.

Chinese NGOs “Going Out”: Depoliticisation and Diplomatisation

Chinese non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are increasingly active in international development activities. As an emerging force, what will their impact be on global civil society, especially given that they originate from an authoritarian environment that places numerous constraints on them? This study examines the internationalisation of Chinese NGOs and its implications for global civil society by analysing the organisational discourses of Chinese NGOs. This discourse analysis relies on a two-layer analytical framework, one layer using qualitative content analysis and the other employing the discursive legitimation framework. The analysis shows that Chinese NGOs use soft charity discourses instead of critical discourses as a way to avoid “politicising” development issues and utilise discourses that diplomatise their international activities. These discourses help Chinese NGOs achieve legitimacy or avoid de-legitimacy through four discursive legitimation strategies: avoidance, authority, rationalisation, and moralisation. This article shows that Chinese NGOs express a strong national identity, position themselves as “friendship messengers,” and bring the Chinese state’s influence to global civil society even though the Chinese state has not yet mobilised internationalisation at scale.

Going out and going green: NGOs in the environmental governance of Global China

ABSTRACT While the roles of actors such as the state and state-owned enterprises within “Global China” elicit significant scholarly attention, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are relatively less critiqued. These members of Chinese civil society are playing an increasingly important role in the environmental governance of the country’s overseas activities. By analyzing firsthand observations and interviews and secondhand materials produced by NGOs and the Chinese government, this article traces how and why Chinese NGOs seek to “green” China’s engagement beyond its borders. First, we identify four types of Chinese NGOs with a variety of state- and non-state founders. Then, we examine how NGOs’ objectives and state policies jointly shape the way they “go out.” As both knowledge and political actors, Chinese NGOs accumulate, produce, and disseminate knowledge related to Global China’s environmental issues, across domestic and international spaces. Though the specific strategies pursued by NGOs depend on their type, overall, their alignment with Chinese state policies and interests constitutes a crucial condition for their success. This research offers new insights into Chinese non-state actors’ expanding participation in international activities. As the country’s civil organizations endeavor to exert influence both within and beyond China’s borders, the effects of their interventions on global governance may grow.

Retrofitting the Mekong: Community-based environmental responses to Chinese transnational infrastructure in a Thai border town

For decades, the Mekong River has been a site of ongoing tensions between China-backed infrastructure and communities relying on the mighty Mekong for their lives and livelihoods. In Thailand, tensions have escalated into actions against ecologically damaging hydropower dam development and the blasting of river rapids for Chinese navigation in a Thai border town. This article examines how Chinese transnational infrastructure has been reconfiguring power relationships among actors at multiple scales. Based on my fieldwork, I offer a narrative of the concerted efforts by one small community-based environmental group in northern Thailand, some of whose activism has prodded Chinese planners and project managers into responding to widespread criticism of ecological damage caused by its hydropower and riparian infrastructure and ignoring the needs of downstream local communities. The interactions between Chinese agencies and local NGOs will be discussed through the concept of a moral ecology of infrastructure, which contributes to transcending infrastructure and the environment, enabling a broadened understanding of human and nonhuman relations in more recent retrofitting of the dams and waterway projects. I argue that the reconfigured ‘Green’ Belt and Road Initiative is a contingent process in which multiple transnational actors claim decision-making power over the retrofitting and redevelopment of the Mekong's ecological infrastructure.

Building rural community disaster resilience in developing countries: insights from a Chinese NGO's Safe Rural Community Program.

As rural areas in developing countries are generally more vulnerable to disasters triggered by natural hazards than urban areas, it has become critical to strengthen rural community disaster resilience (CDR) to reduce the disaster risks. Using follow-up interviews, surveys, and secondary data, this study reviewed the "Safe Rural Community" (SRC) program implemented by One Foundation, a Chinese civilian NGO, after the 2013 Lushan earthquake in China. The study focused on five main key resilience elements; networks, infrastructure, institutions, capabilities, and culture. It was found that the SRC program successfully developed standardized, systematic, interrelated, and practical activities, such as local volunteer rescue teams, emergency supplies, disaster reduction training, community emergency plans, and regular emergency rescue drills. Third-party evaluations and a 2022 Lushan earthquake test revealed that this NGO-led, community-based, and team-oriented program had been effective. The SRC program in Lushan, therefore, provides some guidance on the development of effective CDR programs in rural communities in developing countries.

An Unlikely Duet: Public-Private Interaction in China's Environmental Public Interest Litigation

AbstractIncreasing research has been devoted to examining collaborations between public and private actors in environmental regulation under neoliberal democracies. However, this public-private interaction in authoritarian regimes remains understudied. This article seeks to address this gap in the literature through an empirical examination of the interaction between environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and procuratorates in China's environmental public interest litigation. We find emerging complementarity: NGOs focus on new issues and target high-profile defendants to increase the socio-legal impact of their civil litigation, whereas procuratorates increasingly engage in administrative litigation against government agencies. This complementarity is shaped by the different legal opportunities for Chinese NGOs and procuratorates, as well as their respective institutional objectives and capacities. Their divergent regulatory preferences have also fostered synergy between these two actors, allowing them to collaborate on legal experimentation and innovation.

Labor Precarity of Chinese Feminist and LGBT NGO Activism—a Social Reproduction Perspective

Abstract: This article examines an under-explored topic of labor precarity of Chinese feminist and LGBT NGO activism from the perspective of social reproduction. Contextualizing the intimate connection between the Chinese party-state outsourcing social service delivery to global civil society and the burgeoning of feminist and LGBT NGOs since the 1990s, it argues that the party-state relies on the social reproductive functions of these NGO while containing their political influence; at the same time, the transnational non-profit funding complex utilized these NGOs for political intervention in China. Arguing against a binary framework of civil society versus state and resistance versus oppression, this article centers the lived experiences of feminist and LGBT activist workers and highlights the contradiction and interplay of agency and conformity of these workers in the state- and market- orchestrated processes of moralization, illegalization, and professionalization, whereby they reshape, revise, or reinforce norms associated with gender, sexuality, and neoliberal standards of productivity and efficiency. Building on Marxist feminist theorization of labor, this article valorizes NGO labor as socially valued work and calls for attention to the issue of labor precarity of NGO activist workers under the backdrop of increasing state violence and market cooptation in many parts of the world, especially in the global South.

Explaining the variations in legal mobilization of environmental nongovernmental organizations in authoritarian China: A fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis

AbstractDespite the growing literature on legal mobilization under authoritarianism, the variations of legal mobilization in authoritarian regimes have been less studied. Drawing on a fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis of 175 environmental public interest litigations from 2009 to 2019, as well as in‐depth interviews with environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) representatives, this is the first article to present how organizational, political, legal, and social forces (which are demonstrated by six conditions: capacity, political embeddedness, political endorsement, access, legal stock, and alliance) combine to explain the variations of NGOs' environmental legal mobilization through the use of strategic and nonstrategic litigation in authoritarian China. Although the state's policy to pluralize regulatory actors to improve environmental governance has set up a relatively friendly institutional backdrop for environmental legal mobilization, this study finds that political forces such as the relationship between NGOs and the state and the ambivalent attitudes towards environmental protection between central and local government have significantly influenced the behavioral patterns of NGOs' legal mobilization. Moreover, this study uncovers four types of legal mobilization of Chinese environmental NGOs: allied mobilization, progressive mobilization, steered mobilization, and symbolic mobilization. This study enriches the understanding of the behavioral patterns of nonstate actors in legal mobilization in authoritarian regimes and beyond.

Quarantined judicial expansion: The environmental legal entrepreneurship of Chinese courts, procuratorates, and NGOs

AbstractAlthough judicial empowerment has become increasingly common worldwide, the expansion of judicial powers in authoritarian countries faces persistent obstacles, such as institutional dependence, lack of political clout, and the repression of civil society. Through empirically examining three cases of environmental legal entrepreneurship under China's new public interest litigation (PIL) system, this study aims to reevaluate the patterns and limits of judicial expansion under authoritarianism. It finds that Chinese judges, prosecutors, and NGOs have been able to leverage the PIL system and their respective institutional advantages to substantially expand judicial oversight on eco‐environmental protection. However, the state has established boundaries for such legal entrepreneurship in terms of subject matter, institutional autonomy, and geographic reach, effectively confining them within political spheres considered unthreatening to the regime. Such quarantined judicial expansion shields relevant actors from authoritarian governments' tendency to suppress legal mobilization and thus may be a more viable form of judicial expansion in nondemocratic settings.

The Relationship between NGO Participation and Policy Implementation in China

China has not been left behind in terms of cooperation among non-governmental organizations within its national borders. NGOs have been defending the citizens' shared interests for quite a while now. Environment, gender equality, poverty, public health, and education, among others, are just but a few aspects that the Chinese Non-Governmental Organizations focus on. The Non-Governmental organizations in China assist the government in coming up with policies and enforcing them to ensure that the people's shared interests are safeguarded. Transactional collaboration in funding shared opinions, campaigns, and advocacy assists Chinese non-governmental organizations in offering their services and, in some instances, questioning the status quo.

Quarantined Judicial Expansion: The Environmental Legal Entrepreneurship of Chinese Courts, Procuratorates, and NGOs

Quarantined Judicial Expansion: The Environmental Legal Entrepreneurship of Chinese Courts, Procuratorates, and NGOs

Adapting to the ‘new normal’: Chinese NGOs during COVID-19

Adapting to the ‘new normal’: Chinese NGOs during COVID-19