Chinese Immigration Research Articles

A reflective study on the intricate history of Chinese immigration in Peninsular Malaysia

This article presents a reflective microcosm to faithfully echo the intricate history of Chinese immigration in Peninsular Malaysia, focusing on two migration waves that occurred during the Malacca Sultanate and colonial eras. It meticulously examines the underlying causes, defining the characteristics, patterns and quantities of each immigration wave by drawing upon historical documents, tombstone inscriptions and demographic data. In a significant departure from conventional wisdom, this study challenges the prevailing notion that Chinese immigrants were overwhelmingly male, shedding light on the fact that the initial wave featured a higher proportion of females. Moreover, the analysis illuminates the intricate interplay between local colonial policies and the external factors emanating from China, demonstrating their profound influence on migration patterns and quantities. The present quantitative study offers fresh insights into the multifaceted experiences of Chinese immigrants in Peninsular Malaysia. It underscores the key findings while bringing attention to the associated complexities and nuances.

From Exile to Integration: Immigration Patterns and Cultural Identity of Chinese and Jewish Communities in the United States

The Chinese immigration experience began in the mid-19th century, driven by economic opportunities and marked by significant challenges. In contrast, Jewish immigration, primarily occurring in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was driven by severe religious and racial persecution in Europe. Jewish immigrants sought refuge from violence and the Holocaust, finding a relatively open environment in the U.S. to maintain their religious and cultural traditions. This paper examines the immigration patterns and cultural identities of the Chinese and Jewish communities in the United States, highlighting their distinct historical backgrounds and experiences. This study applies theoretical frameworks from sociology and anthropology, including Everett Lee’s “Push-Pull Theory,” Stuart Hall’s cultural identity theory, and Anthony Giddens’ theory of modernity, to analyze how these communities’ immigration patterns have influenced their cultural identities. The study compares the Chinese community’s economic-driven integration and the Jewish community’s diverse approach to cultural preservation. The findings provide insights into the complexities of cultural identity within the U.S. multicultural landscape and highlight the varied strategies adopted by different immigrant groups. Limitations of this study include its focus on Chinese and Jewish communities, which may not fully represent other immigrant experiences. Future research should consider a broader range of immigrant groups to enhance understanding of cultural integration and identity.

Institutional discrimination and assimilation: Evidence from the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 marked a pivotal moment in U.S. immigration policy, effectively prohibiting Chinese immigration while institutionalizing discrimination against Asians within American society. This study investigates the repercussions of such institutional discrimination on the assimilation process of Asian immigrants, leveraging the timing of the enactment of the Act and the regional variation in the intensity of discrimination. Using a difference-in-differences approach, we find that discrimination posed significant obstacles to the labor market integration of Asian immigrants during the Exclusion Era (1882–1943), and Asian immigrants responded to discriminatory practices by investing in human capital, enhancing English proficiency, and adopting Americanized names. Furthermore, the triple-difference estimates reveal that these effects are more pronounced in regions characterized by heightened discrimination against Asians.

Dual Cultural Influence on the Architectural Style Evolution of San Francisco Chinatown: A Comprehensive Examination

Abstract The unique neighborhood style of San Francisco Chinatown is influenced by Chinese and American culture, history and social system. Through field investigation, Chinese and English literature collection, and spatial analysis, this paper interprets the motivation of its style evolution. In the process of research, the author tries to analyze the changes and driving forces of Chinatown in San Francisco from three dimensions: the city scale, the blocks scale, and the building scale. The results show that the formation process of Chinatown in San Francisco and the range of its blocks are deeply influenced by the world political pattern in the early 20th century, the Sino-American multi-party regulations and Sino-American relations. The architectural style of the block is influenced by the Eastern and Western cultures, which is a distinctive architectural feature. The traditional architecture is deeply influenced by the architectural style of southern Fujian, while the new architecture is mainly based on the modernist architectural style. Among the main factors affecting the evolution of Chinatown in San Francisco, gold rush, earthquake, traditional Chinese architectural style and immigration policy to China are the internal mechanisms of the formation of Chinatown’s spatial characteristics.

I am a Part of China, and China is Always in My Heart: Korean Huaqiao in Abeojiwa Tanghuru

Abeojiwa Tanghuru is a pioneer work in the history of ethnic groups’ literature in Korea. The publication of this book not only signifies that the views of the ethnic groups have been accepted by modern Korean society, but also suggests the important role played by the literature of the Chinese in diversifying Korean literature. This paper, taking Yu Meling and her book Abeojiwa Tanghuru as the object of study, reviews the history of Chinese immigration into Korea and their cultural memories and discusses the identity of Chinese in Korea, providing more literary perspectives and materials for historical and social studies.

Great Expectation in Shadow: Globalization and Young Chinese Entrepreneurs in Africa

Abstract As China’s economic power continues to globalize, more and more Chinese companies and people are going overseas to explore new opportunities. In contrast to the existing research that focuses on the overseas operations of Chinese companies or general immigration phenomena, this study focuses on an emerging group of young entrepreneurs in Africa. Based on three exemplary case studies, this paper attempts to explore these young people’s reasons for going to Africa, their strategies for coping with difficulties, and their gradually formed new lifestyles and self-awareness. The study finds that this group has a stronger “entrepreneurial spirit” than the domestic mobile population of the same age, which is also in the context of individualization, and thus shows a different process of individualization. The members of this group came to Africa with high expectations, used creative solutions to solve various problems in work and life, and dared to break traditions, building their life trajectories and self-understanding in continuous actions. Different from the previous immigrant groups, young entrepreneurs in Africa represent a new way for Chinese people to go out in the world in the era of globalization.

Chinese American Identity, Performance, and Immigration Law: Jue Quon Tai in Theatres and at National Borders

Chinese American Identity, Performance, and Immigration Law: Jue Quon Tai in Theatres and at National Borders

The Making of a Health Profession: How Chinese Medicine Became a Nationally Registered Allied Health Profession in Australia

Abstract In 2012, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) practitioners in Australia became nationally-registered allied health professionals in three categories: acupuncturist, Chinese herbal medicine practitioner, and Chinese herbal medicine dispenser. Australia was the first Western country to introduce national registration for Chinese medicine, followed by Portugal and, recently, New Zealand. The practice of TCM in Australia can be traced back to the beginning of Chinese immigration to Australia during the Victorian Gold Rush which began in the 1850s. The process which led to national registration commenced in the early 1970s with the establishment of the first acupuncture courses. Decades of gradual development of courses from unaccredited part-time diplomas to accredited bachelor degrees, and the development, by the profession, of national consensus on educational standards were essential elements in the process which led to registration. Professional associations, such as the Australian Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine Association Ltd. (AACMA), also developed a framework of professional self-regulation, including Codes of Ethics, Codes of Conduct, ongoing professional development requirements and Infection Control Guidelines, and provided leadership in the development of the profession. After decades of tribalism and division within the TCM profession, the National Academic Standards Committee brought almost all stakeholders together to reach a consensus on the Australian Guidelines for Traditional Chinese Medicine Education which were published by AACMA in 2001. Professional associations also collaborated on joint submissions to the government in support of registration, which was introduced first in the state of Victoria in 2000, and subsequently became national in 2012. Despite national registration, some barriers still remain, and professional associations continue to lobby the federal government for inclusion in Medicare, chronic disease management scheme, and Veterans Affairs.

Morphology of Kisaran City: The Circulation System in Urban Transformation 1929-2022

The rapid economic growth and significant urbanization in Kisaran City have posed several challenges in urban planning, including adequate housing, health facilities, education, and transportation. The city's development was also influenced by its colonial history, with the dominance of colonial power regulating the production and trade of plantation products as well as the lives of local people. The morphological transformation of the city from 1929 to 2022 reflects the challenges related to infrastructure, visual appearance, and the growth of the commercial sector, which have affected the lives of citizens and demanded the city's adaptation to the development of the times. Historical events, such as colonization by foreign powers and Chinese immigration, have affected the population growth of Kisaran and caused pressure on infrastructure and socio-economic inequality. This study aims to understand the morphology of Kisaran City and the factors that influence its transformation by using the methods of literature study, synchronic approach, and diachronic approach. The results of the study concluded that the morphological transformation of Kisaran City was influenced by the circulation system, which adapted to the needs and trends of society, and interacted with each other in forming the morphology of Kisaran City that continues to develop over time.

Dissemination of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Latin America and the Caribbean: the Cases of Peru, Chile, and Cuba

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) arrived from China to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1840s due to the massive migration of Chinese people to the region. In a few years, the press noticed the presence of Chinese herbalists practicing in different cities and countries regardless of the demographic weight of the Chinese community. The fascination with Chinese doctors implicated not only the press but also the literature, a phenomenon particularly observed in Cuba. In the first decades of the 20th century, the reactivation of Chinese immigration to the region fostered an anti-Chinese climate that materialized in more significant migratory restrictions and control of their businesses, such as what happened with Chinese herbalists. These herbalists who practiced inside and outside the Chinese community started to object to criticism and persecution by the conservative press and professional doctors. Despite this, Chinese doctors will continue to maintain their support of a significant number of ill persons. This work seeks to illuminate the historical relevance of TCM in Latin America and the Caribbean, focusing on the cases of Peru, Chile, and Cuba. This last country was far from China culturally and geographically, but as in many other small towns in the region, Chinese medicine presented an alternative to the treatment of illnesses.

Asian American Surgery: A Short History of Immigration, Naturalization, and Refugee Laws and Policies that Brought Asians to America.

Chinese immigration in America in the mid-nineteenth century incited violence and governmental sanctions to restrict Asian immigration and reject citizenship rights. In 1870, Chinese strikebreakers in Massachusetts ignited nationwide demonstrations against Chinese immigration, which ended altogether with the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882). Japanese schoolchildren in San Francisco public schools sparked rioting in 1907, leading Japan to unilaterally limit emigration to the United States (Gentlemen's Agreement, 1908). Congress responded to anti-Punjabi riots (Bellingham, WA, 1907) by refusing naturalization rights to Asians (Barred Zone Act, 1917), policies supported by the Supreme Court (Ozawa, 1922; Thind, 1923). All immigration from Asia was soon prohibited (Johnson-Reed Act, 1924). Anti-Asian measures peaked in 1942 with imprisonment of Japanese in concentration camps, including those with birthright citizenship. Anti-Asian policies unwound in the last half of the 20th century, culminating in sweeping changes in US immunization policy. Naturalization rights were granted to wartime allies against Japan (China, 1943; the Philippines and India, 1946) and the Japanese themselves (1952). Asian women marrying American servicemen were allowed entry into the country (1945, 1950). Prohibitions against Asian immigration were lifted in 1965 (Hart-Celler Act), with preference for those trained in science, technology, and medicine. The refugee crisis that followed the fall of Saigon (1975) drove humanitarian policies that brought evacuees from Southeast Asia and others from throughout the world seeking freedom from persecution (Refugee Act, 1980). Hundreds of thousands from China, South Asia, the Philippines, and Southeast Asia thus settled in the United States, changing American society and medicine.

Impact of Korean Chinese Immigration to the Republic of Korea under the Overseas Koreans Act

Impact of Korean Chinese Immigration to the Republic of Korea under the Overseas Koreans Act

The Development of an Incommensurable Whiteness

Mexican philosopher José Vasconcelos’s The Cosmic Race (first published in 1925) has enjoyed both considerable prestige and criticism in academic circles concerned with Chicano/a/x studies, among others. Despite frequent debates concerning Vasconcelean mestizaje, few have considered how the relationship between eugenics, public hygiene, and antichinismo (anti-Chinese sentiment) in Mexico influenced mestizaje’s development in his work. Investigating this relationship in the first place solidifies claims concerning the exclusionary function of Vasconcelean mestizaje. The influence of eugenic discourses and hygienic practices is demonstrated by the explicit racial preferences that are manifested in Vasconcelos’s public art commissions as well as his writings. Yet, I contest Vasconcelean mestizaje’s proximity to whiteness, a term frequently construed broadly and often in relation to Anglo Europe, by tracing mestizaje’s historical development in relation to Chinese immigration and labor policies in Mexico. The status of whiteness in Vasconcelos’s work has implications for Chicana/o/x studies since keystone texts and theorists, such as Gloria Anzaldúa, are criticized for their appropriation of Vasconcelos due to his alleged privileging of whiteness. Fostering a deeper understanding of the relationship between racial categories and state development, I shed light on the how material relations augment the determinable content of racial categories such as whiteness.

Politika identit v čínských enklávách amerických měst: muzejní narace

This text deals with ethnopolitical identities as presented to visitors to Chinese enclaves by their inhabitants themselves in museums of Chinese enclaves in the United States. We focus on three locations: San Francisco, New York, and Chicago. The text briefly introduces the history of Chinese immigration and the establishment of the Chinese as a minority within the American nation. It focuses on the content of the permanent exhibitions, it describes and analyzes the forms of representing Chinese identities in these museums. At a theoretical level, we draw on the concept of identity politics. We apply a syntagmatic approach, using a method of narrative analysis of the exhibitions, comparing the sequential development of the museum narrative in the order it is intended to be presented to museum visitors. We identify the various elements of the design of the exhibitions and the themes presented. Our research was conducted during field trips of the authors between 2013–2019. The exhibitions come with a so-called canonical narrative that is linearly conceived and introduces the “harmony” of Chinese and American identities. The canonical narrative is coherently and logically conceived, the presented themes support the whole narrative. The canonical narrative illuminates the presence of Chinese immigrants as a journey from exclusion to full emancipation and recognition of their equality, with reference to cultural specifics of Chinese sociocultural identities.

The Function of Mazu Belief of the Chinese People in Vietnam

Abstract The Mazu belief is a type of Chinese folk belief that has become a global cultural phenomenon. Before the Second World War, Chinese immigrants built temples for Mazu in many places of Southeast Asia, including Vietnam, especially its Southern part. The region has been commonly known as the place of coexistence and multicultural exchanges between four ethnic groups, namely the Viet (Kinh), Hoa (Chinese), Khmer and Cham. Chinese immigration to Vietnam has a long history. Southern Chinese immigrants and their unique culture started arriving in the region in the late seventeenth century. After immigrating to Vietnam, they maintained various ties with their motherland through cultural practices and belief systems, especially Mazu worship. In Vietnam, they set up various guild halls, temples and chambers of commerce to worship Mazu, forming a dense ethnic social network that has played a significant role within the Vietnamese Chinese community. Using the notions of transnationalism and ethnic identity, and supported by fieldwork, literature research and a more comprehensive general analysis, this study is not only aimed at understanding Mazu belief in Vietnam but also underlines the role played by this belief in the Chinese community in Vietnam.

From Discrimination to Integration: A History of Chinese Immigration in Canada

From Discrimination to Integration: A History of Chinese Immigration in Canada

Chinese Migration to Britain and the Impact of the Cultural identity on the British East Asian Theatr

Cultural identification has a long history that dates back to colonial times. As globalization increased the frequency of cross-national encounters during the 1950s, researchers became more concerned with the question of cultural identity. Globalization had a significant influence on third-world culture in the late 1990s, therefore most researchers paid increasing attention to the question of national culture and national identity. The topic of cultural identity first arose in Britain in the nineteenth century. As a colonist, Britain improved its native culture, while weakening its foreign culture. The emphasis on British national pride in education for all countries distinguishes between internal and exterior cultures. According to Liu (2021), the issue of accepting mainstream culture while rejecting alien culture has entered the ambit of British cultural identity inquiry due to the increase of Chinese immigration to Britain. The history of the Chinese in Britain, the waves of immigration, their identity transitions over time, and numerous related subjects, including the economic and social position of the Chinese in Britain, have affected the new Chinese identity as being exposed in the British East Asian Theatre (BEAs). The aim of this study is to link the development of the British East Asian Theatre with the impact of the changes that happened to the cultural identity of the Chinese migrants in Britain throughout history since the 1880s. The researchers conclude that the various generations of Chinese migration to Britain from the early nineteenth century to the present have gone through many cultural changes. These changes affected their Chinese identity and resulted in a cultural conflict in terms of acculturation and loss of heritage. This is what the British East Asian playwrights try to expose in their theater.

The Anti-chinese Riots at Washington Territory in 1885-1886

US-Chinese relations often become the object of researchers' consideration. Russian historians often raise the issue of Chinese immigration to the New World, but, as a rule, these are review and retrospective works covering the entire period of this problem, starting from the middle of the XIX century. And the vicissitudes of the development of sinophobia, which flourished in American society in the era of the “Gilded Age" and united all segments of the population, are shown in general terms. Meanwhile, racism towards Asians manifested itself not only in the adoption of the law on the restriction of Chinese immigration in 1882, but also in acts of violence against newcomers: murders, lynchings, sometimes taking the most massive form – the form of anti-Chinese riots. For this reason, the author turned to the poorly developed question in Russian historical science about anti-Chinese pogroms in the northwestern United States in the mid-1880s. The article examines the events that took place in Tacoma and Seattle, examines the causes, course and consequences of the racially motivated riots that occurred on the Territory of Washington in the autumn-winter of 1885-1886, and also reveals the reaction of local and federal authorities to what happened. The events in the north-west of the United States reflected the chauvinistic sentiments prevailing in society at that time and the unwillingness to assimilate the Chinese within the framework of the American "melting pot".

TCM in Canada: Health Care and the Importance of Alternative Medicines that Complement Medical Practice

This article explores the introduction and growth of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) through the lens of Chinese immigration to Canada. It further explores how it has spread to other cultural groups in Canada. Several theories are described to explain why it has attracted attention by non-Chinese ethnicities: the interest in organic and nature-based approaches, the underfunding health care, lack of family doctors, expensive drugs from big pharmaceutical companies, and respect for Chinese cultural practices. The regulatory practice of TCM is described along with the organization, types of educational program and certification as well as a patient’s perspective of TCM treatment.

La migración china en República Dominicana: 1862–1961

La migración china en República Dominicana: 1862–1961