Chinese Coaches Research Articles

Development of the Chinese coaches' autonomy-supportive-laissez-faire coaching style scale.

The autonomy-supportive coaching style is recognized for its positive impact on athletes' well-being and performance. However, the transition of excessive autonomy into a laissez-faire coaching style has not been thoroughly examined within the context of coach evaluation scales. Existing scales focus predominantly on the positive dimensions of autonomy support, and do not possess the capabilities to measure outcomes which may be viewed as negative or other outcomes. This study aims to integrate the autonomy-supportive and laissez-faire coaching styles within the same measurement framework. Our study developed a comprehensive scale to assess both the autonomy-supportive and laissez-faire coaching styles, drawing on items from the Sport Climate Questionnaire for autonomy support and adapting items from leadership research for laissez-faire coaching. We conducted two studies: the first with 148 athletes to refine the laissez-faire items and the second with 460 athletes to validate the full scale, utilizing exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and correlation analysis. We also measured internal consistency and split-half reliability. The finalized scale includes a 6-item autonomy-supportive subscale and a 5-item laissez-faire subscale. Validation processes confirmed the scale's construct and criterion validity, alongside its reliability. The Chinese Coaches' Autonomy-Supportive-Laissez-Faire Coaching Style Scale effectively captures both the beneficial and potentially detrimental aspects of coaching styles, addressing a critical gap in the literature and providing a reliable tool for evaluating coaching approaches.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of Chinese coach leadership and athlete satisfaction and cohesion.

This meta-analysis investigates the relationship between coach leadership behaviors and athlete satisfaction and group cohesion within the realm of Chinese sports. The study also explores player sex and player classification as potential moderating variables. The primary focus is on evaluating the impact of coaching behaviors, as measured by the Leadership Scale for Sports, on athlete satisfaction and group cohesion. Standard literature searches from China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Wanfang academic databases produced 26 studies encompassing a total of 319 effect sizes and a participant pool of 7,121 athletes across various sports. Using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) to examine relevant data, results reveal a moderate and positive association between coach leadership and athlete satisfaction (ES = 0.412). Specifically, training and instruction (ES = 0.531), positive feedback (ES = 0.526), social support, and democratic decision-making exhibit positive effects, while autocratic behavior demonstrates a marginal positive effect. Similarly, a moderate positive relationship is identified between coach leadership and overall group cohesion (ES = 0.275), with training and instruction (ES = 0.396), social support (ES = 0.356), positive feedback, and democratic behavior positively influencing cohesion. Conversely, autocratic behavior has a small negative impact on cohesion. Furthermore, female athletes (ES = 0.603) and professional players (ES = 0.544) display stronger positive associations between coach leadership and satisfaction. These findings highlight the significance of diverse coaching behaviors aligned with player characteristics for fostering positive athlete satisfaction and group cohesion within the Chinese sports context, offering valuable guidance to Chinese coaches aiming to enhance their coaching strategies.

Female leadership in sports coaching: a case analysis of Chinese coaches through the ability–motivation–opportunity framework

Purpose This study aims to investigate how the role of female leadership works in sports coaching. Drawing key insights from the ability–motivation–opportunity (AMO) framework of human resource management, the authors explore the underlying mechanisms of female leadership and the role female coaches play in enabling athletes to develop their self-initiative through AMO enhancement. Design/methodology/approach The sample in this study is made up of 11female coaches from eight teams in China selected using purposive sampling. Data was collected and analyzed on various aspects of female leadership. Findings Analysis of interviews and secondary data show that the mechanisms and enablers related to AMO enhancing practices stimulated by female coaching leadership can increase team performance. Research limitations/implications This study opens new avenues for sports science research and strengthens the theoretical and practical understanding of the intentions and mechanisms female coaches implement as leaders in sports coaching. Originality/value First, this study contributes to the AMO framework by helping form new theoretical insights based on the understanding of female sports coaching mechanisms. Second, this study provides novel insights into female leadership literature by investigating the mechanisms of female leadership in the context of sports exercise. Third, this study also contributes to the body of research on sports coaching in Asia, especially that of Chinese women in such leadership roles.

The successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach: an interview analysis.

The role of a coach in enhancing athletes' performance and achieving success is well-documented across numerous studies. However, the strategies employed by Chinese coaches in developing world champion gymnasts remain under explored. This research involved a single case study focusing on a coach from the Chinese National Men's Gymnastics Team, credited with nurturing eight world champion gymnasts. The inductive content analysis leads to that 6 subthemes, "international perspective and collaborative ability," "ability to control and regulate training loads," "identifying athletes' needs and transforming them into motivation," "goal setting aligned with athletes' abilities," "adopting authoritative democratic coaching style," and "establishing hierarchical-style friendship", and 3 themes, "training management and planning," "motivation and goal setting," and "interpersonal communication" are manifested. An overarching theme "the successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach," is derived from the analysis. This research bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, offering valuable insights into the successful experiences of gymnastics world champion coaches. The findings have the potential to influence coaching methodologies globally, fostering the development of resilient, motivated, and high-performing athletes. Future research should focus on sport-specific studies, longitudinal analyses, and cross-cultural comparisons to further advance the field of sports coaching and validate the effectiveness of these innovative coaching strategies.

Development and validation of the Chinese coaches' interpersonal style scale.

Coaches' behaviors and coaching styles play a critical role in influencing athletes' psychological experiences and performance. According to the self-determination theory (SDT), coaches' interpersonal behaviors are commonly categorized as autonomy-supportive and controlling. Due to less focus on the unique behaviors of Chinese coaches, this study incorporated coaches' parental care for athletes, referred to as paternalistic benevolence, in their interpersonal styles in the context of the Chinese culture. Exploratory factor analyses were used in studies 1 and 2 to find items associated with benevolent coaching behaviors and items to create the Chinese Coaches' Interpersonal Style Scale. Study 3 used the constructed scale, as well as the Subjective Vitality Scale and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire, with a sample of athletes to examine scale reliability. The 15-item Chinese Coaches' Interpersonal Style Scale contained three dimensions: benevolent, autonomy-supportive, and controlling coaching styles. The findings showed that: (1) benevolent coaching behaviors held significant explanatory weight in the Chinese cultural context; (2) controlling and autonomy-supportive coaching styles were culturally congruent among both Eastern and Western athletes; and (3) benevolent and autonomy-supportive coaching behaviors positively impacted athletes, whereas controlling coaching behaviors had a negative impact. The measure showed strong validity and reliability, making it useful for future practice and research on the interpersonal style of Chinese coaches.

Development and initial validation of the Career Self-Management scale for Chinese coaches.

The purpose of the study was to develop and initially validate a context-specific scale assessing Career Self-Management for Chinese coaches (Career Self-Management Scale-CC; CSMS-CC). Firstly, qualitative data obtained from in-depth interview with coaches were contently analyzed to generate potential CSMS-CC items. The content validity of the items was evaluated by a panel of experts. Secondly, the factor structure and item performance of the CSMS-CC were examined using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and internal consistency reliability of its subscales were evaluated in sample 1 (n = 229, 24.01% females). Thirdly, factor structure of the CSMS-CC was further examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in sample 2 (n = 295, 32.54% females). Internal consistency reliability was evaluated using Cronbach' alpha coefficient and composite reliability. Nomological validity was examined using Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling (SEM) by investigating the correlations between CSMS-CC subscales with career success. Finally, measurement invariance and latent mean difference of the CSMS-CC was examined across gender, professional title and coaching class using multiple-group CFA (MGCFA). Based on the results of the content analysis and content validity evaluation, 18 CSMS-CC items were retained for further analysis. Results of EFA in sample 1 revealed that eight items were problematic and removed. The second round of EFA revealed that three components were retained and labelled as Networking Behavior (4 items), Training Exploration (3 items), and Guanxi Development (3 items). Results of CFA in sample 2 suggested that the 10-item three-correlated-factors model of CSMS-CC demonstrated acceptable model fit to the data, χ2 = 135.01, df = 32, p < 0.01, CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90, SRMR = 0.05, RMSEA = 0.092 (90% CI = 0.076-0.108). Composite reliability (ranging from 0.84 to 0.88) and Cronbach's alpha coefficients (ranging from 0.78 to 0.81) of three subscales were found satisfactory. Nomological validity was supported by the results that total score and subscale scores of the CSMS-CC were significantly associated with internal marketability and external marketability. It was found that the CSMS-CC measurement model was strict invariant across gender, professional title and coaching class. Significant differences on all three subscales across professional title and on Guanxi development across coaching class were revealed. Results of this study provided initial support for the psychometric properties of the 10-item CSMS-CC, which suggested that the CSMS-CC could be used for measuring the career self-management of Chinese coaches.

Mezhkul'turnyj opyt i adaptaciya mezhdunarodnyh predstavitelej kul'tury ushu v Afrike

This study examined the cross-cultural experiences and adaptation of 18 Chinese coaches of Wushu (martial arts) in the Amitofo Care Centre (ACC) in Africa, using literature review, interview, and comparisons.

Nationality Effects on the Allocation of Playing Time in the Chinese Basketball Association: Xenophilia or Xenophobia?

This paper uses 2011–2019 data from the Chinese Basketball Association to assess the determinants of playing time with a focus on the effects of players’ national origin. Playing time is explained by an array of standard performance variables as well as each player's characteristics (such as age, height, and weight). Controlling for these factors, we test for whether there is any evidence of preferential treatment for foreign players over Chinese players. Our findings, using both a fixed effects model and the Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition approach, offer consistent support for discrimination in favor of U.S. players and other foreign nationals. Intriguingly, Chinese coaches discriminate against Chinese players even more than non-Chinese coaches. We argue that foreign players draw attendance and hence receive more playing time than is justified by their performance alone.

Nationality Effects on the Allocation of Playing Time in the Chinese Basketball Association: Xenophilia or Xenophobia?

This paper uses 2011-2019 data from the Chinese Basketball Association (CBA) to assess the determinants of playing time with a focus on the effects of players’ national origin. Playing time is explained by an array of standard performance variables as well as each player’s characteristics (such as age, height and weight). Controlling for these factors, we test for whether there is any evidence of preferential treatment for foreign players over Chinese players. Our findings, using both a fixed effects model and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition approach, offer consistent support for discrimination in favor of US players and other foreign nationals. Intriguingly, Chinese coaches discriminate against Chinese players even more than non-Chinese coaches. We argue that foreign players draw attendance and hence receive more playing time than is justified by their performance alone.

A Chinese perspective on the actual and preferred sources of coaching knowledge

Efforts to improve coaching effectiveness require an understanding of the common sources of coaches’ knowledge acquisition. Sports coaches utilise multiple learning sources, yet limited direct evidence elucidates the manner in which Chinese coaches learn to coach and the evolution of their learning sources throughout their careers’ development. This research examines the actual and preferred sources of coaching knowledge for Chinese coaches and analyses changes in learning sources from Junior to Senior level coaches. One hundred coaches from China, including 60 Junior coaches, 23 Intermediate coaches and 17 Senior coaches, completed an online questionnaire. The survey results indicated that coaches acquire knowledge from formal, informal and non-formal learning situations. However, formal coach education (coach education programmes) is the most important source of knowledge acquisition for all coaches. Furthermore, as coaches develop, the sources to acquire knowledge will gradually change from athletic experience to interaction with other coaches. Based on these findings, we suggest that national sport governing bodies build more comprehensive coach education systems by establishing a scientific mentoring system and organising regular coach-themed clinics, seminars, meetings and so on. Future research is needed to examine how coaches in China’s dominant programmes learn to coach and how this learning is practically applied.

THE CURRENT STATE AND ISSUES OF PREPARATION OF AN ATHLETIC RESERVE (BASED ON THE SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH)

Aim. The article deals with the analysis of the current state and issues of training sports reserve in track and field. Materials and methods. A questionnaire consisting of 12 questions and 57 subquestions of open-ended, close-ended and multiple choice types was developed. The questionnaire-based survey was carried out among Russian and Chinese coaches (n = 161) aged 20–72 years including Honored coaches of the Russian Federation (n = 7) and elite coaches (n = 38). Results. The questionnaire-based survey for coaches demonstrated that they worried about: declining popularity of track-and-field compared to other sports; early specialization and related risks; low qualification of coaches working with children and teenagers. Respondents pay special attention to negative consequences of early specialization such as early retirement from sport, loss of promising athletes; short career in elite sports; growing number of sports-related injuries in young athletes. According to coaches, the main factors contributing to early specialization are the following: a) specialized training, which results in a rapid growth of sport results; b) achievements in sports are so high that a coach has to search for sports reserve among children. According to the respondents, young athletes should participate in competitions to learn how to overcome themselves and accumulate competitive experience. The majority of respondents think that integrated training in track-and-field is one of the important factors of successful career. Conclusion. A social survey of coaches has revealed peculiarities and issues typical for training sports reserve in track-and-field, which have to be considered and resolved.

The risk of low energy availability in Chinese elite and recreational female aesthetic sports athletes

BackgroundLow energy availability (LEA) is a medical condition observed in athletes, with a higher prevalence in aesthetic sports. For the first time, this study evaluated the relative prevalence of LEA in female elite athletes (ELA) and recreational athletes (REA) in aesthetic sports in China.MethodsFemale athletes from 6 sports (trampolining, rhythmic gymnastics, aerobics, dance sport, cheerleading and dance) were recruited, including ELA (n = 52; age = 20 ± 3) on Chinese national teams and REA (n = 114; Age = 20 ± 2) from Beijing Sport University. Participants completed 2 online questionnaires to assess LEA and eating disorder risk. These included the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q), which provided information on injury history, gastrointestinal function and menstrual history, and the Eating Disorder Inventory-3 Referral Form (EDI-3 RF). For a sub-group of elite athletes (n = 14), body composition, bone mineral density, and blood serum were also quantified.ResultsA total of 41.6% of participants (n = 69) were at increased risk of LEA, and 57.2% of participants (n = 95) were classified as high in eating disorder risk. For ELA vs. REA, there was a significantly higher prevalence of LEA risk (55.8% vs. 35.1%; p = 0.012) and amenorrhea (53.8% vs. 13.3%; p < 0.001). Elite athletes at increased risk of LEA had significantly lower estradiol (p = 0.021) and whole-body BMD (p = 0.028). Pearson correlations indicated that the whole-body BMD (r = − 0.667, p = 0.009) correlated negatively with LEAF-Q score.ConclusionsResults of this study indicate that there is a risk of LEA in female Chinese athletes within aesthetic sports, and significantly higher prevalence of increased LEA risk observed in ELA than in REA. Chinese coaches and sports medicine staff working elite female athletes in aesthetic sports should develop strategies to reduce the prevalence of LEA.

Blending and becoming: migrant Chinese high-performance coaches’ learning journey in Australia

ABSTRACTPurpose: Despite the recruitment of foreign sport coaches being a relatively long-standing phenomenon, there is limited research examining the experiences of foreign coaches working in globalised high-performance sport contexts. In examining how foreign coaches learn to perform their craft, we draw upon Billett’s [2006. ‘Relational Interdependence Between Social and Individual Agency in Work and Working Life.’ Mind, Culture, and Activity 13 (1): 53–69. doi:10.1207/s15327884mca1301_5] notion of relational interdependence, which embraces a work-based approach to understanding how migrant coaches learn. Specifically, this lens enables a broad consideration of the interdependent relationship between the foreign coach’s agency and the affordances of the host workplace.Method: A single case (embedded) research design was chosen through the purposeful sampling of a sport organisation. The case focused on the learning of Chinese migrant coaches employed within an Australian high-performance coaching workplace (henceforth referred to as the National Sport Organisation; NSO) and involved data collection from three foreign coaches, four athletes, and four administrators employed by the NSO. Through a multiple data collection method (i.e. 1 year of observation, 20 interviews, 1 focus group, and related document collection), information was collected regarding the coaches’ practices and learning. A theoretical thematic analysis guided the data analytic procedure with the assistance of MindNode software.Results and discussion: Several major themes were identified in relation to Chinese coaches’ learning and practices in the NSO. Overall, Chinese coaches met work requirements through substantial personal learning including aspects related to language (i.e. English), the development of culturally appropriate coaching practices, and enhancement of athletes’ training approach.Conclusion: The findings of this research might be generative for foreign coaches and those responsible for the recruitment, professional learning, and development of such coaches. The notion of relational interdependence was an appropriate theoretical lens for research related to the learning of foreign high-performance sport coaches.

Actual and ideal sources of coaching knowledge of elite Chinese coaches

Globalization and advances in technology have created a context where knowledge changes and circulates faster than ever. In high-performance sport coaching, coaches increasingly move from country to country to join national teams – becoming ‘migrant coaches’. From a coach development perspective, it becomes relevant to investigate how coaches from different countries learn to coach and what would be their ideal sources of knowledge acquisition. Unfortunately, there is a major gap in the English literature regarding Asian coaches. Thus, a study with Chinese gymnastics (Gym) and rhythmic gymnastics (R-Gym) coaches has been conducted. Eighty coaches completed a questionnaire on their actual and ideal sources of knowledge acquisition; 16 of these were interviewed. Data show that the coaches acquired their knowledge (actual) mainly through ‘being an athlete’ and ‘having a mentor’. Ideally, they would like to have a better balance between these two sources and formal learning situations (courses, seminars, etc.). Another key finding is the barrier resulting from the lack of English knowledge, which is an important limit for Chinese coaches wishing to gather information from abroad, especially through the Internet.

Assessing Chinese coach drivers’ fitness to drive: The development of a toolkit based on cognition measurements

Road traffic accidents resulting in group deaths and injuries are often related to coach drivers’ inappropriate operations and behaviors. Thus, the evaluation of coach drivers’ fitness to drive is an important measure for improving the safety of public transportation. Previous related research focused on drivers’ age and health condition. Comprehensive studies about commercial drivers’ cognitive capacities are limited. This study developed a toolkit consisting of nine cognition measurements across driver perception/sensation, attention, and reaction. A total of 1413 licensed coach drivers in Jiangsu Province, China were investigated and tested. Results indicated that drivers with accident history within three years performed overwhelmingly worse (p<0.001) on dark adaptation, dynamic visual acuity, depth perception, attention concentration, attention span, and significantly worse (p<0.05) on reaction to complex tasks compared with drivers with clear accident records. These findings supported that in the assessment of fitness to drive, cognitive capacities are sensitive to the detection of drivers with accident proneness. We first developed a simple evaluation model based on the percentile distribution of all single measurements, which defined the normal range of “fit-to-drive” by eliminating a 5% tail of each measurement. A comprehensive evaluation model was later constructed based on the kernel principal component analysis, in which the eliminated 5% tail was calculated from on integrated index. Methods to categorizing qualified, good, and excellent coach drivers and criteria for evaluating and training Chinese coach drivers’ fitness to drive were also proposed.

The Psychometric Properties of the Short and Long Versions of the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire

The Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire was developed to effectively measure affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects, represented by the interpersonal constructs of closeness, commitment, and complementarity, of the quality of the relationship within the context of sport coaching. The current study sought to determine the internal reliability and factorial validity of the long (the 29-item Long Version Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire) and short (11-item Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire and 13-item Greek Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire) versions of the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire with a sample of 800 Chinese coaches and athletes. Results supported the internal reliability across all Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire versions examined, while confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) only supported the factorial validity of the three-factor first-order model of the 11-item Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for theory, research, and practice.

Preparing the ground for the implementation of a large-scale CCS demonstration in China based on an IGCC-CCS thermal power plant: The China-EU COACH Project

Abstract The COACH project (Cooperation Action Within CCS China-EU 1 ) was launched on November 1st 2006 for a period of 3 years, as part of the 6th framework programme of the European Commission 2 . Gathering 20 partners comprising 8 Chinese partners and 12 European partners, the COACH project was conceived as contributing to the first phase of the Near Zero Emission Coal fired power plants (NZEC) programme, a 3-phase programme developed between the European Union and China, aiming at combating climate change by enabling the deployment in China of thermal power plants equipped with CO 2 capture and storage (CCS) facilities. The objective of the COACH project was to establish the basis for the large-scale use of coal for polygeneration in China with pre-combustion capture, transport and geological storage of CO2. Main efforts were place on a future CCS demonstration operated on an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) thermal power plant fully equipped for converting and splitting the produced syngas into a hydrogen-rich fuel gas and CO2, and with a subsequent storage of CO2 in either mature hydrocarbon reservoirs (Dagang or Shengli oil provinces), deep saline formations or unmineable coal seams. Focus was made on the emission sources and storage sites located in the part of the Bohai Basin in the Shandong Province. The paper will present the main outcomes of the project as follows : • Structuring the China-EU COACH venture: In order to enabling the sharing of knowledge between European and Chinese COACH partners and building capacity a survey of CCS activities was performed, workshops were organised in EU and China, a cooperative website was created and two one-week long CCS schools were organised in China gathering more than 100 students 2/3 thereof coming from China and the remaining from Europe; • Technical actions and challenges relating to CCS, gasification and polygeneration: A generic IGCC concept implemented with CO2 capture was defined and compared against a plain IGCC based on the GreenGen Phase I system without CO2 capture. A detailed analysis of technologies needed for implementing an option for CO2 capture in an IGCC process with provision for production of electricity and methanol was carried out as well as a cost analysis of both CO2 capture and transport; • Geological assessment and storage sites mapping: A quantitative assessment of the potential storage sites (the Dagang and Shengli oil provinces, the deep saline aquifers nearby and the Kailuan coal mining area) was performed along with a mapping of the possible transport infrastructure (by pipelines or ships) that could be developed to connect CO2 sources to CO2 sites; with regards to storage capacity, the main capacity was found to reside in the deep saline aquifers (several giga tonnes) but would require further geological investigation for delivering definite values. The storage potential in oil fields was found to be much smaller (less than one giga tonne) but could provide opportunities for enhanced oil recovery. Finally, the coals of Kailuan mining area exhibit a high ability to adsorb CO2 and provide enhanced coalbed methane recovery, but their injectivity remains to be verified. • Case studies and recommendations for CCS demonstration in China: By integrating results obtained in the previous tasks dealing with CO2 capture and CO2 storage, two scenarios (one small scale–from 0.1 to 1 million tonnes of CO2 per year, one large scale–2 to 3 million tonnes of CO2 per year) were designed to screen options for a possible CCS demonstration project. These alternative CO2 streams are both considered captured from the GreenGen IGCC power plant in Tianjin and transported to one or more geological formations in the Bohai Bay geological basin for permanent disposal. Storage for the smaller scale scenario could be accommodated in the Dagang or Shengli oilfields. Storage for the larger scale scenario (2–3 million tonnes a year) could be accommodated in the Shengli oilfield province (in a number of fields) or potentially in the saline formations that can be found in the Huimin sub-basin area. For each of these options, a preliminary risk assessment was performed. A thorough cost analysis was performed. Policy and regulation issues pertaining to a shift towards CCS in China. The 3-year targeted cooperative actions under the COACH project have mobilised capacities in China and Europe and paved the ground for subsequent CCS demonstrations in China. The next phase of the China-EU NZEC programme should start in 2010 and deliver FEED studies which should allow starting operating a CCS demonstration in China by 2015.