Chinese American Immigrant Families Research Articles

Parental expressions of love in Chinese American immigrant families: Implications for children's attachment security.

Harlow's seminal work on the nature of attachment focused on the importance of warm, responsive, and loving relationships in children's healthy development. While the need for love and care is arguably universal, the ways in which these emotions are expressed can vary across cultural contexts. We examined how Chinese American parents' expressions of love were associated with children's attachment security. A total of 110 Chinese American immigrant parent-child dyads (children 7-11 years old, 49% girls) participated in 3-min conversations in which parents were instructed to communicate love and care. Proposition-level analyses in speech (total 8825 propositions) identified three types of affection: training (guan and chiao shun); relational affection (qin); and validation (acceptance and encouragement of child's own expression of emotion, thoughts, and behaviors). Higher training was observed in parents with lower American orientation and lower income. Higher relational affection was observed in parents with lower income. Higher validation was observed in parents with higher income. Using path analyses, training and validation were found to be positively associated with children's attachment security beyond parenting styles. Effects of parents' relational affection were moderated by children's American orientation. Results demonstrate how immigrant parents draw on multiple cultural scripts to express love and care. These findings expand traditional concepts of parental love in immigrant families and illustrate how bicultural expressions of love can shape attachment security in middle childhood. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/HqUfIDxkFsE RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Analyses of parent-child discussions identified three parental affection styles (i.e., training, relational affection, and validation) as expressions of love and care in Chinese American immigrant families. Training and validation were positively associated withchildren's attachment security. Relational affection was associated with lowerattachment security for children with higher American cultural orientation, suggesting the effects of parent-child expressions of love are shaped by acculturation.

Ethnic‐racial socialization in Chinese American immigrant families: Associations with middle childhood ethnic identity

AbstractCompared to studies of ethnic identity development in adolescence, fewer investigations have examined the development of ethnic identity during middle childhood, a developmental period of dynamic social and cognitive changes that have direct implications for social identity and group membership. Moreover, research on the developmental processes of Asian American youth has also primarily utilized cross‐group comparisons, while neglecting consideration of variations in acculturation, socioeconomic status, and other sociodemographic characteristics within Asian American ethnic groups. Using a socioeconomically‐ and acculturatively‐diverse sample of Chinese immigrant families in the United States (N = 169; 49.1% girls; M = 9.16 years; SD = 1.05), the present study examined how parents’ ERS practices varied by parents’ socioeconomic status, education, and cultural orientations, then tested associations between parents’ ERS and children's self‐reported ethnic centrality and ethnic regard. More highly‐educated Chinese American immigrant parents reported more frequent cultural socialization and more acculturated parents reported more preparation of their children for racial and ethnic bias. Consistent with hypotheses, parents’ cultural socialization was positively associated with children's self‐reported ethnic centrality and positive regard. Results highlight the roles of social status and acculturation in Chinese immigrant parents’ ERS, and point to middle childhood as a key developmental window for ethnic identity socialization and development in immigrant families.

The Thematic Characteristics of First and Second Generation Chinese American Writers: Based on the Analysis of The Bonesetters Daughter, Crazy Rich Asians, Everything You Never Told Me, and A Thousand Years of Good Prayers

Novels created by Chinese American writers are expected to reveal certain situations in Chinese American immigrant families. Family conflicts can be combined with more social problems, such as racial discrimination, gender discrimination, political suppression, and the discussion of ancestry and familyhood. First and second-generation Chinese American writers have different perspectives and techniques to blend family conflict with social problems, but their works also have features in common. The paper compares Crazy Rich Asians, A Thousand Years of Good Prayers, The Bonesetters Daughter, and Everything You Never Told Me to analyze their plots, characters, and the backgrounds of their authors, respectively, to conclude these Chinese American writers techniques similar, or variable, and the causes to such differences. In general, the writing methods of Chinese American writers and their techniques are closely related to their educational experience and cultural background. Different degrees of relation with Oriental culture and moral values lead to various points of view expressed in stories. A lack of knowledge of Asian traditions may lead to misinterpretation of certain behaviors, but this might also prompt writers to introduce the better part of Asian traditions. As writers often get inspiration from surrounding people and events, settings, plots, and characters can also be seen to reflect the writers cultural and educational backgrounds.

Reasons for Migration, Post-Migration Sociocultural Characteristics, and Parenting Styles of Chinese American Immigrant Families.

With the growing percentage of Chinese immigrants in the U.S. population, it is crucial to understand how pre-migration factors (such as reasons for migration) are related to the adjustment of families in the host country. The present study examined reasons for migration and their associations with post-migration sociocultural factors and parenting styles in a community-based sample of Chinese American immigrant families (N = 258) living in the San Francisco Bay Area. The parents' self-reported reasons for migration included family reasons (55.1%, e.g., family reunification), betterment reasons (18.0%, e.g., better education and occupational opportunities), and both family and betterment reasons (26.9%). Those who migrated for betterment reasons reported significantly higher parental education and per capita income than the family reason group (p < 0.001) and significantly higher income than the combined reason group (p = 0.007). No significant group differences emerged in cultural orientations and parenting styles after controlling for socioeconomic factors. The findings suggested that Chinese immigrant families who migrated solely for better education and occupational opportunities had significantly higher post-migration socioeconomic status than other reason groups. These differences have relevance for programs and services for new immigrants, as families might need different types of support (e.g., socioeconomic vs. relational) depending on their motivations for migration and post-migration socioeconomic resources.

Abstract P611: A Multi-Sector, Collaborative Approach to Improve Diet in Mexican and Chinese American Immigrant Families

Introduction: Latinx and Asian American communities in the U.S. face unique yet similar structural barriers to maintaining adequate diet quality, contributing to an increased burden of diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in these groups. These inequities have been exacerbated in recent years due to overt anti-immigrant and anti-Asian sentiment during the COVID-19 pandemic, invoking fear and cultural shame for these groups, and amplifying challenges towards accessing food and economic stability. Hypothesis: Herein we describe a community-centered, multi-level approach aligned with the National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities Framework. We hypothesize our study will result in increased fruit and vegetable intake (self-report, measured via skin carotenoids), social cohesion and ethnic pride at the individual level and improved socioeconomic outcomes at the neighborhood level. Methods: Working collaboratively with 8 community-based and farm partners, the goal of the Building Access to Food through Systems and Solidarity (BASIS) Study is to improve diet and economic stability in Sunset Park—a neighborhood of Mexican and Chinese American families in Brooklyn, NY. This neighborhood has been hard-hit during the COVID-19 pandemic and lagged in economic recovery, and its residents are disconnected from government support. BASIS addresses food access, nutrition education, policy change, and hands-on learning (e.g., gardening, cooking) incorporating culturally appropriate values, foods, and taste preferences throughout each of these activities. Results: To date, we have held four group model-building workshops with partners to identify common priorities/goals towards improving nutrition in immigrant communities; co-developed Mexican and Chinese American-specific nutrition education materials; held eight virtual and in-person sessions with community members (n=291); conducted qualitative interviews (n=19) and quantitative data collection (n=175) amongst community residents to inform program development; and implemented a subsidized, community-supported agriculture pilot program for 20 weeks in 2022 (n=38). BASIS resources have been well-received by community members, with high engagement (90% attend weekly produce box pick-up events) and acceptance (100% indicated they would recommend the program to others). Conclusions: Planned evaluation will include mixed methods and administrative data analyses for assessment of multi-level outcomes. BASIS will expand to more participants (n=150), and will include additional program components (e.g., food policy assessment; workforce development; small business owner education). BASIS presents a powerful model to improve diet in immigrant communities applying systems thinking and community-centered best practices, lessons which may be gleaned for other immigrant communities.

Longitudinal relations between self-regulatory skills and mathematics achievement in early elementary school children from Chinese American immigrant families

Drawing from two waves (∼1.5–2.5 years apart) of longitudinal data, the current study investigated the bidirectional associations between self-regulatory skills and mathematics achievement among a socioeconomically diverse sample of school-age Chinese American children from immigrant families (N = 258; 48.1% girls; ages 5.8–9.1 years; first to third grades at Wave 1). Children’s self-regulatory skills were assessed with task-based measures of attention focusing, inhibitory control, behavioral persistence, and comprehensive executive function as well as parent- and teacher-reported effortful control. Multiple regressions showed that behavioral persistence and parent-reported effortful control positively predicted math achievement over time. Math achievement positively predicted comprehensive executive function over time. These effects were found when controlling for child age, sex, generation status, family socioeconomic status, parents’ cultural orientations, and prior levels of math achievement or self-regulation. The prospective relation of math achievement predicting comprehensive executive function remained significant after a false discovery rate correction.

Longitudinal relations among school context, school-based parent involvement, and academic achievement of Chinese American children in immigrant families

Immigrant families face multiple barriers to engaging with children's schools. Yet, school-based parent involvement has been associated with academic and behavioral benefits for children of immigrant families. Although past research has examined links between family contextual factors and parent involvement, less is known about the links between school contextual factors and parent involvement in immigrant families. Identifying socio-cultural barriers to parent involvement across home and school contexts can inform culturally competent family engagement interventions serving immigrant families. In a two-wave (1.5 years apart) longitudinal study of a community-based sample of Chinese American children (N = 210, beginning age = 5.8–9.1 years) attending over 80 schools in a metropolitan area, we assessed school-based parent involvement behaviors and parent involvement-related psychological processes (i.e., parent-teacher relationship quality, parents' endorsement of schools, teachers' perceptions of parents) using parent and teacher report. First, results indicated that significant positive associations were found between school-based parent involvement behaviors and parent involvement-related psychological processes (rs = 0.36–0.53). Next, multi-level modeling was conducted to test concurrent relations of Wave 1 school contextual factors to all four parent involvement constructs (controlling for family-level factors), as well as testing the prospective relations of parent involvement at Wave 1 to children's academic achievement at Wave 2. Student body diversity of schools was negatively associated with school-based parent involvement (rs = −0.18, −0.17), parent-rated parent-teacher relationship quality (r = −0.18), and parents' endorsement of schools (r = −0.36). The concentration of Asian students at schools and schoolwide achievement were negatively associated with teachers' perceptions of parents (rs = −0.18, −0.20). However, neither school contextual factors nor school-based parent involvement at Wave 1 uniquely predicted children's academic achievement at Wave 2. Implications of findings for understanding and addressing barriers to engaging Chinese American immigrant families in their children's schools are discussed.

A longitudinal study on bidirectional relations between executive functions and English word-level reading in Chinese American children in immigrant families

This two-wave (1.5 years apart) longitudinal study examined the bidirectional relations between measures of executive function (EF; working memory, attention focusing, inhibitory control, and a comprehensive EF measure) and two types of English word-level reading (pseudoword reading and word reading) among 258 school-aged children (52.6% boys, age = 5.8–9.1 years, in 1st to 3rd grades at Wave 1) from Chinese American immigrant families. Cross-lagged panel analyses were conducted to test whether the four EF measures and English word-level reading proficiency predicted one another controlling for prior levels of EF or reading, as well as demographic characteristics and children's English and Chinese language proficiency. We found a positive bidirectional association between the comprehensive EF measure and pseudoword reading. By contrast, although the comprehensive EF measure positively predicted word reading over time, word reading did not predict comprehensive EF. Additionally, both word reading and pseudoword reading positively predicted working memory over time. The results provided partial evidence that English word-level reading is bidirectionally related to EF among early elementary school-age dual language learners.

Parent-Child Conflict Profiles in Chinese American Immigrant Families: Links to Sociocultural Factors and School-Age Children's Psychological Adjustment.

Research suggests that parent-child conflict is a salient family process in Asian immigrant families and often a stressful experience for Asian American youth due to value discrepancies between Asian and Western cultures. The present study examined ratings of parent-child conflict across conflict topics from parents' and children's perspectives in a sample of Chinese American immigrant families with school-age children (N=239; age=7.5-11years). Latent profile analyses identified three parent-rated conflict profiles and four child-rated conflict profiles. Parent and child conflict profiles were unrelated to each other and differentially related to family sociocultural factors and children's psychological adjustment. Parents' moderate conflict profile scored highest on parent-rated child behavior problems and had the highest household density and lower parent Chinese orientation. Children's moderate-specific and high conflict profiles scored higher on child-reported behavior problems than the low conflict profile. These results highlight the need to assess family conflict from both parents' and children's perspectives and target parent-child conflict communication as a pathway to prevent or reduce behavioral problems in Chinese American children of immigrant families.

Emotion talk in Chinese American immigrant families and longitudinal links to children’s socioemotional competence.

Parent emotion talk (ET), a type of emotion-related socialization practice, is theorized to foster children's emotion-related regulation and socioemotional skills. Yet, there has been limited research linking parent ET to children's effortful control, a top-down regulatory process. Despite the observed cultural differences in ET between Chinese and European American families, few researchers tested whether the socioemotional benefits of ET are generalizable to Chinese American families, an immigrant group with contrasting values in their heritage and host cultures. The present study examined Chinese American parents' ET, its associations with sociocultural factors, and prospective relations to school-age children's effortful control, sympathy, and socially appropriate behaviors. In a two-wave (1.5 years apart) longitudinal study of first- and second-generation Chinese American children (N = 258, age = 6-9 years at Wave 1, 52% from low-income families), the content and quality of parent ET (e.g., the overall quality of emotion talk, frequency of emotion explanations, emotion questions, and number of emotion words) was coded from a video-recorded shared book reading task. Children's effortful control, sympathy, and social behaviors were rated by parents, teachers, and children. Results showed that the Chinese American parents from lower socioeconomic status families, families with lower English proficiency, or more recent immigrants displayed lower ET. Parent ET was prospectively related to children's higher effortful control after controlling for stability, and higher effortful control was concurrently associated with children's higher sympathy and more socially appropriate behaviors. The findings provide empirical support for the socioemotional benefits of ET for school-age children in Chinese American immigrant families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Intrusive Parenting in Chinese American Immigrant Families: Relations with Cultural Orientations and Children's Adjustment.

This multi-method study examined associations between observed and parent- and child-reported intrusive parenting, parent and child cultural orientations, and children's adjustment in a socioeconomically diverse sample of Chinese American immigrant families. Participants were 239 Chinese American school-aged children (M age = 9.19 years, range = 7.49 to 10.96 years) and their parents from first- and second-generation immigrant families. Parents and children reported on parents' intrusive parenting, their own cultural orientations, and parents and teachers reported on children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Observed intrusive parenting behaviors were coded from videotaped parent-child conflict discussions. Findings from path analysis indicated that there was a unique positive association between child Chinese orientation and child-reported intrusive parenting, a unique negative association between parents' American orientation and child reported intrusive parenting, and a unique positive association between child American orientation and observed intrusive parenting. Intrusive parenting was negatively associated with child adjustment, but associations varied depending on measurement. Findings suggest that different measures of intrusive parenting are differentially associated with children's adjustment in Chinese American immigrant families.

Heritage language socialization in Chinese American immigrant families: prospective links to children’s heritage language proficiency

ABSTRACT Though a number of language socialization processes are theorized to promote children’s heritage language proficiency (HLP), little research has considered these processes in a single study and examined their prospective relations to multiple domains of HLP in school-age children. In a two-wave longitudinal study of Chinese American children of immigrant parents (N = 258, age = 7–11 years), language socialization processes (e.g. adult HL use at home, parental attitudes towards HL, child participation in HL classes or extracurricular activities) were assessed using parent reports and behavioral observation at Time 1 (1st to 2nd grade). Children’s HLP (Cantonese or Mandarin) was assessed using vocabulary and literacy tests at Time 2. Results of structural equation modeling showed that adults’ Chinese language use with children at home predicted children’s higher Chinese receptive and expressive vocabulary two years later, and children’s participation in Chinese language extra-curricular activities predicted their higher Chinese receptive and expressive vocabulary and higher Chinese word reading. By contrast, parental valuing of Chinese language and children’s exposure to Chinese media did not predict children’s Chinese proficiency. These findings provided support for the benefits of HL use at home and HL classes in promoting HL development in children in immigrant families.

Marital Conflict of Chinese American Immigrant Couples: A Mediator of Socioeconomic Incorporation and Children’s Behavioral Problems

This study examined Chinese American immigrant couples’ marriage conflict, and the relations among socioeconomic incorporation, marital conflict, and their school-age children’s behavior problems. A total of 230 parents (81 % mothers, 19 % fathers) as the participating parent provided demographic and background information, rated their own marital conflict and their children’s behavioral problems. Findings indicated that: (a) the score of Chinese American immigrant couples’ marital conflict was low, child exposure to conflict was much lower than frequency of marital conflict; (b) marital conflict mediated the relation between socioeconomic incorporation and children’s behavioral problems. We found that frequency of marital conflict partially mediated the relationship between maternal education level and children’s internalizing problems; it also totally mediated the relationship between maternal education level and children’s externalizing problems; child exposure to conflict totally mediated the relationship between family estimated per capita income and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. The results promote understanding of family processes that influence the relationships between family socioeconomic incorporation, marital conflict, and children’s behavioral problems among Chinese American immigrant families.

Neighborhood characteristics, parenting styles, and children’s behavioral problems in Chinese American immigrant families.

Using data from a socioeconomically diverse sample of Chinese American children (n = 258, aged 6-9 years) in immigrant families, we examined the concurrent relations among neighborhood economic disadvantage and concentration of Asian residents, parenting styles, and Chinese American children's externalizing and internalizing problems. Neighborhood characteristics were measured with 2000 U.S. Census tract-level data, parents (mostly mothers) rated their own parenting styles, and parents and teachers rated children's behavioral problems. Path analysis was conducted to test two hypotheses: (a) parenting styles mediate the relations between neighborhood characteristics and children's behavioral problems, and (b) children's behavioral problems mediate the relations between neighborhood and parenting styles. We found that neighborhood Asian concentration was positively associated with authoritarian parenting, which in turn was associated with Chinese American children's higher externalizing and internalizing problems (by parents' reports). In addition, neighborhood economic disadvantage was positively related to children's externalizing problems (by parents' reports), which in turn predicted lower authoritative parenting. The current results suggest the need to consider multiple pathways in the relations among neighborhood, family, and child adjustment, and they have implications for the prevention and intervention of behavioral problems in Chinese American children.

Parent–child cultural orientations and child adjustment in Chinese American immigrant families.

Direct and indirect/mediated relations of (a) children's and parents' cultural orientations and (b) parent-child gaps in cultural orientations to children's psychological adjustment were examined in a socioeconomically diverse sample of 258 Chinese American children (age = 6-9 years) from immigrant families. Parents reported on children's and their own Chinese and American orientations in language proficiency, media use, and social relationships. Parents and teachers rated children's externalizing and internalizing problems and social competence. Using structural equation modeling, we found evidence for both the effects of children's and parents' cultural orientations and the effects of parent-child gaps. Specifically, children's American orientations across domains were associated with their better adjustment (especially social competence). These associations were partly mediated by authoritative parenting. Parents' English and Chinese media use were both associated with higher authoritative parenting, which in turn was associated with children's better adjustment. Furthermore, greater gaps in parent-child Chinese proficiency were associated with children's poorer adjustment, and these relations were partly mediated by authoritative parenting. Together, the findings underscore the complex relations between immigrant families' dual orientations to the host and heritage cultures and children's psychological adjustment.

Physical discipline in Chinese American immigrant families: An adaptive culture perspective.

Research on ethnic minority parenting has examined heritage cultural influences and contextual stressors on parenting processes. However, rarely are adaptive cultural processes considered, whereby ethnic minority parents bring their cultural values to bear in adapting to contextual demands in the host society. A survey of 107 Chinese American immigrant parents examined whether use of physical discipline can be predicted by cultural values, contextual stressors, and their interactions. Results indicated that distinct domains of cultural values were related to physical discipline in disparate ways, with some values decreasing risk and others indirectly increasing risk. There was some evidence that cultural values interacted with contextual stress to predict physical discipline. Parent-child acculturation conflicts were only related to physical discipline when parents held strong values about the importance of firm parental control. The findings illustrate how heritage cultural influences and current ecological demands may converge to shape parenting in immigrant families.

Punitive discipline and child behavior problems in Chinese-American immigrant families: The moderating effects of indigenous child-rearing ideologies

In a sample of 107 Chinese immigrant families we examined whether cultural child-rearing beliefs moderated the association between parents’ use of punitive discipline and children’s behavioral adjustment. Immigrant parents and their children aged 7 to 17 years completed measures of parental discipline and child behavior problems. Parents also reported on indigenous Chinese child-rearing ideologies regarding shaming and training as strategies for raising competent and moral children. Results of hierarchical regression models conducted with parent-reported data indicated that the negative effects of punitive discipline on child behavior problems were not apparent when parents adhered to training and shaming ideologies. However, the buffering effects of training ideologies were more robust and consistent than shaming. The findings provide some evidence that the discipline—behavior problem link may be moderated by cultural context of caregiver psychology which shapes the meaning and implications of parental behavior.

Chinese Families in Transition: Cultural Conflicts and Adjustment Problems

Challenged to cope with two different cultures, Chinese American immigrant families face many stressors and conflicts. Such difficulties faced by these individuals usually stem from language, religious, and value differences. Furthermore, family members are faced with role and status changes due to differing rates and levels of acculturation. As a result, there is a great need for mental health services. However, due to cultural barriers, mental health services are not accessible nor acceptable to many Chinese Americans. Effective intervention strategies which integrate the Chinese cultural values and norms with psychotherapy are recommended.

Assessment and Treatment of Chinese-American Immigrant Families

(1989). Assessment and Treatment of Chinese-American Immigrant Families. Journal of Psychotherapy & The Family: Vol. 6, No. 1-2, pp. 99-122.