Child Apprehension Research Articles

Who cares for the mothers?: A narrative inquiry exploring substance use disorders among pregnant women

Background: The nexus between pregnancy and substance use disorders is usually studied from the perspective of the fetus, quantitatively examining the risks associated with in utero substance exposure. There is little regard for the mother and her experience. With an awareness of some of the challenges pregnant women with substance use disorders face, the purpose of this research was to explore how pregnancy and substance use disorders are situated within motherhood and to identify opportunities to shift the understanding of women’s experiences among health care professionals so more supportive care can be offered. Methods: Narrative inquiry was used for this research. The researcher engaged with three pregnant women who self-identified as having a substance use disorder. Formal and informal conversations, field notes, and a research journal were used to collect data. Narratives were co-constructed between the researcher and each woman. Results: The results are presented as excerpts from each woman’s narrative. Narratives extended beyond pregnancy and into a period of conditional motherhood where women were forced to meet state mandated conditions or risk loss of motherhood. Sobriety was fragile and impacted by stressful events such as child apprehension and treatment programs did not meet the needs of mothers. Conclusions: Ongoing, comprehensive services that support pregnant women and are continued into the postpartum period are needed. Peer support models may be an effective means for providing pregnancy specific substance use treatment. Treatment programs must be accessible and meet the distinct needs of women. Extensive breastfeeding support should be considered for women in recovery to promote mother infant attachment.

The Alberta Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome Mother-Baby Care ImprovEmeNT (NASCENT) program: protocol for a stepped wedge cluster randomized trial of a hospital-level Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome rooming-in intervention

BackgroundNeonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS), a problem common in newborns exposed to substances in-utero, is an emerging health concern. In traditional models of care, infants with NAS are routinely separated from their mothers and admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) with long, expensive length of stay (LOS). Research shows a rooming-in approach (keeping mothers and infants together in hospital) with referral support is a safe and effective model of care in managing NAS. The model’s key components are facilitating 24-h care by mothers on post-partum or pediatric units with support for breastfeeding, transition home, and access to Opioid Dependency Programs (ODP). This study will implement the rooming-in approach at eight hospitals across one Canadian Province; support practice and culture shift; identify and test the essential elements for effective implementation; and assess the implementation’s impact/outcomes.MethodsA stepped wedge cluster randomized trial will be used to evaluate the implementation of an evidence-based rooming-in approach in the postpartum period for infants born to mothers who report opioid use during pregnancy. Baseline data will be collected and compared to post-implementation data. Six-month assessment of maternal and child health and an economic evaluation of cost savings will be conducted. Additionally, barriers and facilitators of the rooming-in model of care within the unique context of each site and across sites will be explored pre-, during, and post-implementation using theory-informed surveys, interviews, and focus groups with care teams and parents. A formative evaluation will examine the complex contextual factors and conditions that influence readiness and sustainability and inform the design of tailored interventions to facilitate capacity building for effective implementation.DiscussionThe primary expected outcome is reduced NICU LOS. Secondary expected outcomes include decreased rates of pharmacological management of NAS and child apprehension, increased maternal ODP participation, and improved 6-month outcomes for mothers and infants. Moreover, the NASCENT program will generate the detailed, multi-site evidence needed to accelerate the uptake, scale, and spread of this evidence-based intervention throughout Alberta, leading to more appropriate and effective care and use of healthcare resources.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov, NCT0522662. Registered February 4th, 2022.

Supportive alcohol policy as a key element of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder prevention.

In Canada, a Four-Part Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) Prevention has been developed that describes a continuum of multi-sectoral efforts, including broad awareness campaigns, safe and respectful conversations around pregnancy and alcohol use, and holistic and wraparound support services for pregnant and postpartum women with alcohol, and other health and social concerns. Supportive alcohol policy is at the centre of the four mutually reinforcing levels of prevention. The purpose of this narrative review is to describe alcohol policies related to specific levels of FASD prevention, and to consider the implications of alcohol policies on FASD prevention and women's and fetal health. The majority of the evidence focused on alcohol in pregnancy guidelines, alcohol warning labels, and knowledge and uptake of national or regional alcohol and pregnancy guidelines. Several US studies described shifts in alcohol and pregnancy policy over the 7-year period, including moves to punitive approaches that criminalize women's substance use or prompt child apprehension. This review indicates that more attention could be paid to the role of alcohol policy in FASD prevention and in promoting women's and fetal health, and that policy actions and advocacy could be important catalysts for both FASD prevention and women's health promotion. Moving forward, it is essential that alcohol policies are rooted in evidence; attend to and promote women's health including health during pregnancy; and are collaborative in order to prompt a higher standard of care, and more holistically respond to the factors that contribute to women's alcohol use during pregnancy.

The Cedar Project: Relationship between child apprehension and attempted suicide among young Indigenous mothers impacted by substance use in two Canadian cities.

Indigenous leaders are gravely concerned over disproportionate representation of Indigenous children in Canada’s child welfare systems. Forced separation from children is deeply traumatizing for mothers and detrimental to the wellbeing of Indigenous families, communities and Nations. This study examined relationships between child apprehension and suicide attempt within a cohort of young Indigenous women impacted by substance use. We utilized data collected every 6 months (2008–2016) by the Cedar Project, an Indigenous-governed cohort study involving young Indigenous people who use drugs in British Columbia, Canada. Recent child apprehension was defined as having a child apprehended by the Ministry of Child and Family Development since last visit. Recurrent event Cox proportional hazards models estimated the independent effect of child apprehension on maternal suicide attempt. Among 293 participants, 78 (27%) reported 136 child apprehensions; incidence of first apprehension was 6.64 (95%CI: 5.25–8.29) per 100 person-years. Forty-seven (16%) participants reported 75 suicide attempts with an incidence of 4.00 (95%CI: 2.94–5.33) per 100 person-years. Participants who reported recent child apprehension (HR: 1.88, 95%CI: 1.00–3.55), had a parent attend residential school (HR: 4.12, 95%CI: 1.63–10.46), experienced recent sexual assault (HR: 4.04, 95%CI: 2.04–7.99), violence (HR: 2.54, 95%CI: 1.52–4.27) or overdose (HR: 4.97, 95%CI: 2.96–8.35) were more likely to attempt suicide. Participants who had a traditional language spoken in the home growing up were half as likely to attempt suicide (HR: 0.49, 95%CI: 0.23–1.01). Results suggest that child welfare systems in Canada perpetuate historical and intergenerational trauma among young Indigenous mothers. Indigenous self-determination over child welfare and culturally safe services are urgently needed to end cycles of child apprehension and support the wellbeing of families, communities and Nations.

Leveraging Health Administrative Data to Investigate Maternal Vulnerabilities in Early Life Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Hospitalizations in Ontario, Canada

IntroductionRespiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of hospitalization among infants globally. Several RSV vaccine candidates are currently in trial and the severity of RSV-related illness can be reduced with prophylaxis. To optimize delivery of these programs and reduce inequities, a comprehensive understanding of risk factors for severe RSV-related illness is required.
 Objectives and ApproachThe objective of this study was to quantify the risks of severe, early life RSV-related illness in terms of medical conditions, birth characteristics and novel socio-economic factors. We used linked population-based health and socio-demographic administrative data for all children born in Ontario (Apr 1st, 2012-March 31st, 2018), including laboratory viral testing data for a subset of children, to identify all RSV-related hospitalizations occurring in Ontario before a child’s third birthday or end of follow-up (March 31st, 2019). We calculated the relative risk of RSV-related admission, adjusted for several medical complexity and transmission factors. Critically, we leveraged these routinely collected health administrative data to determine the admission risks associated with various novel measures indicative of maternal social vulnerability, such as homelessness and involvement with the criminal justice system.
 Results11,279 RSV-related hospitalizations were identified among 789,484 children; 57% of admissions occurred before 6 months of age. We identified several socio-economic factors independently associated with increased risk of severe RSV-related illness, including several maternal factors: young age at first delivery (Relative risk (RR) <20 vs 40+ years: 2.27, 95%CI:(1.89,2.73)), involvement with the criminal justice system [RR:1.34 (1.16,1.55)], social assistance use (RR:1.53 (1.45,1.62)), homelessness [RR:1.69 (1.01,2.83)], mental health/addictions concerns [RR:1.51 (1.36,1.67)] and child apprehension [RR:1.59 (1.29,1.96)].
 Conclusion / ImplicationsWe identified several socio-economic factors independently associated with increased risk of severe RSV-related illness, including several novel factors related to maternal vulnerability. This information could inform the selection of high-risk groups for RSV prophylaxis or immunization programs.

In Search of the Truth: Uncovering Nursing’s Involvement in Colonial Harms and Assimilative Policies Five Years Post Truth and Reconciliation Commission

The year 2020 marks five years since the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada released its Calls to Action, directing nursing to take action on both “truth” and “reconciliation.” The aim of this article is to examine how nurses have responded to the TRC’s call for truth in uncovering nursing’s involvement in past and present colonial harms that continue to negatively impact Indigenous people. A narrative review was used to broadly examine nurses’ responses to uncovering nursing’s complicity in five colonial harms: Indian hospitals, Indian Residential Schools, child apprehension, Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG), and forced sterilization. The paucity of results during the post-TRC period demonstrates a lack of scholarship in uncovering the truth of nursing’s complicity in these systems. Based on findings, we explore two potential barriers in undertaking this work in nursing, including a challenge to the image of nursing and anti-Indigenous racism.

“Another thing to live for”: Supporting HCV treatment and cure among Indigenous people impacted by substance use in Canadian cities

BackgroundColonization and colonial systems have led to the overrepresentation of Indigenous people impacted by substance use and HCV infection in Canada. It is critical to ensure Indigenous people's equitable access to new direct acting antiviral HCV treatments (DAAs). Identifying culturally-safe, healing-centered approaches that support the wellbeing of Indigenous people living with HCV is an essential step toward this goal. We listened to the stories and perspectives of HCV-affected Indigenous people and HCV treatment providers with the aim of providing pragmatic recommendations for decolonizing HCV care. MethodsForty-five semi-structured interviews were carried out with Indigenous participants affected by HCV from the Cedar Project (n = 20, British Columbia (BC)) and the Canadian Coinfection Cohort (n = 25, BC; Ontario (ON); Saskatchewan (SK)). In addition, 10 HCV treatment providers were interviewed (n = 4 BC, n = 4 ON, n = 2 SK). Interpretive description identified themes to inform clinical approaches and public health HCV care. Themes and related recommendations were validated by Indigenous health experts and Indigenous participants prior to coding and re-contextualization. ResultsTaken together, participants’ stories and perceptions were interpreted to coalesce into three overarching and interdependent themes representing their recommendations. First: treatment providers must understand and accept colonization as a determinant of health and wellness among HCV-affected Indigenous people, including ongoing cycles of child apprehension and discrimination within the healthcare system. Second: consistently safe attitudes and actions create trust within HCV treatment provider-patient relationships and open opportunities for engagement into care. Third: treatment providers who identify, build, and strengthen circles of care will have greater success engaging HCV-affected Indigenous people who have used drugs into care. ConclusionThere are several pragmatic ways to integrate Truth and Reconciliation as well as Indigenous concepts of whole-person wellness into the HCV cascade of care. By doing so, HCV treatment providers have an opportunity to create greater equity and support long-term wellness of Indigenous patients.

Truth, respect and recognition: addressing barriers to Indigenous maternity care.

[See related article at [www.cmaj.ca/lookup/doi/10.1503/cmaj.181002][2]][2] KEY POINTS For those of us living and working in First Nations, Inuit and Metis communities, the finding of the linked research by Wall-Wieler and colleagues,[1][2] that mothers with a history of child apprehension are

An evaluation of a Housing First program for chronically homeless women

Housing First is rapidly developing as a promising practice for ending homelessness. However, concerns have been raised regarding application for particular populations, such as women. Using a critical feminist lens, this evaluation assessed a Housing First program delivered in a mid-sized city in Ontario, Canada. The evaluation included interviews with program participants, program providers, and community key informants. Ultimately, the program proved successful in housing a small group of chronically homeless women, demonstrating that Housing First works with women, and works best when designed with the unique needs of women taken into consideration. The program achieved moderate fidelity to the Housing First model, and a number of recommendations are provided to better meet the unique needs of women. In particular, the issue of unresolved grief and loss in the context of child apprehension was identified as a root cause of ongoing trauma. Consideration is also given to the intersection between mental health services and Housing First programs.

Gendered drug policy: Motherisk and the regulation of mothering in Canada

BackgroundDue to misinformation and enduring discourses about pregnant women and mothers suspected of using drugs, these women continue to experience systemic discrimination. In 2014, this fact was once again made public in Canada when the Ontario government established an independent review of hair testing practices conducted by Motherisk Drug Testing Laboratory (MDTL) at Toronto's Hospital for Sick Kids. Between 2005 and 2015, MDTL tested the hair of more than 16,000 individuals for drug consumption. The results were introduced as evidence in court and resulted in both temporary and permanent loss of custody of children. Tragically, it was later discovered that the hair testing results were unreliable. This paper provides an analysis of child protection policies and practices directed at pregnant women and mothers suspected of using drugs, with a focus on the Motherisk tragedy in Ontario. MethodsInformed by feminist and critical drug perspectives, this study draws from findings in the 2015″Report of the Motherisk Hair Analysis Independent Review," produced by Honourable Susan Lang, and provides a Bacchi-informed critical analysis of Commissioner Beaman's 2018 report of the Motherisk Commission, "Harmful Impacts: The Reliance on Hair Testing in Child Protection" (HI). ResultsThe HI report is quite sympathetic to the plight of families and it acknowledges systemic issues and unequal power relations between families, social workers and the courts. Even though drug testing is an inadequate measure of parenting capacity, the HI report does not recommend banning the practice. In the HI report, the themes of harm reduction and drug prohibition are notably absent — while the use of gender-neutral terms, such as "parent" and "families," render mothers invisible. ConclusionsThe Motherisk tragedy cannot be understood as an isolated event, rather it is part of a continuum of state and gendered violence against poor, Indigenous, and Black women in Canada. The HI report fails to consider how prohibitionist discourses about drugs, addiction, mothering, and risk lead to institutional practices such as drug testing and child apprehension.

The results of bilateral cochlear implantation in the children who survived meningitis

The objective of the present study was the prospective analysis of the results of bilateral cochlear implantation (CI) in the children presenting with bilateral ossification of the cochlea after they had survived meningitis. A total of 15 patients underwent the surgical intervention. In those exhibiting bilateral ossification of the basal cochlear helix over the 5 mm segment (up to first bend of the cochlear turn) and partial ossification of the second helix (in 6 children), the affected portions were removed with the placement of two choleostomies, the lower one (from the ossified membrane of the cochlear window) and the upper one (toward the second helix). Activation of the speech processors of the CI systems was carried out within 4-6 weeks after surgery. The hearing abilities of the children were evaluated in accordance with the 'Estimation of the auditory perception categories', 'Estimation of the child's apprehension capacity', and 'Analysis of speech intelligibility rating' guidelines. In all the children with ossification over less than 5 mm of the basal cochlear helix, it proved possible to introduce the whole intracochlear electrode grid whereas only half of the electrode array was implanted in the cases of overall ossification of the basal helix. The first results obtained by telemetry and surdopedagogical testing gave evidence of the possibility of identifying various sources of non-verbal and speech stimuli in all the treated children at a small (up to 3 meters) distance.

Impact of malocclusion on oral health-related quality of life in 10-14-year-old children of Mumbai, India.

Aims and Objectives:The aim and objective of this study was to establish the relationship of oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) as assessed by the Child Perception Questionnaire (CPQ 11–14) with the Index of Orthodontic Treatment Need (IOTN) and the child's apprehension with his/her dental appearance and how upset the child would feel if he/she is unable to obtain orthodontic treatment.Materials and Methods:An observational cross-sectional study was conducted among 604 children between the age group of 10–14 years to analyze the effect of malocclusion on the quality of life of children on the basis of impact on oral symptoms, functional limitation, emotional well-being, and social well-being. Malocclusion was evaluated using the IOTN, and the CPQ 11–14 was used to study the OHRQoL in children. The collected data were then subjected to statistical analysis.Statistical Analysis:Spearman's correlation coefficient was used to analyze the data statistically.Results:Out of the 604 children examined, boys showed effect on emotional well-being, whereas girls showed a significant correlation on both emotional and social well-being. There was a statistically significant correlation between IOTN and all the four domains of CPQ scores with respect to the two questions that were added to the CPQ questionnaire.Conclusion:A questionnaire when developed specifically for determining the effect of malocclusion on OHRQoL focusing more on emotional and psychological impact and less on oral symptoms and functional limitation will provide advantages of having limited questions, being less time-consuming, and providing better understanding of the patients’ concern.

Pathways to criminalization for street-involved youth who use illicit substances

Illicit drug use and homelessness among street-involved young people remain community and public health concerns, in part because of their association with ‘public disorder’, as well as increased encounters between youth, police, the criminal justice system, and the associated health-related harms. In the public imagination, illicit drug use, homelessness, and police encounters (including incarceration) are often understood as problems rooted in individual biographies. In general, there has been a lack of attention to the larger historical, institutional, and social-spatial contexts that converge across time, to increase young people’s risk of coming into contact with police and the criminal justice system. Drawing from a longitudinal ethnography with street-involved young people who use illicit drugs in Vancouver, Canada, we highlight two qualitative case studies that illustrate some of the ‘pathways’ to criminalization among this population. Specifically, these case studies reflect the complex linkages between child apprehension, foster care, homelessness, illicit substance use, and incarceration (juvenile detention and prison) across time. Our findings highlight the role of state interventions in perpetuating the marginalization that occurs across young people’s lives, in ways that increase their vulnerability to police and criminal justice encounters.

The 'stolen generations' of mothers and daughters: child apprehension and enhanced HIV vulnerabilities for sex workers of Aboriginal ancestry.

ObjectivesThe number of children in care of the state continues to grow in BC, Canada with a historical legacy of child apprehension among criminalized and marginalized populations, particularly women of Aboriginal ancestry and sex workers. However, there is a paucity of research investigating child apprehension experiences among marginalized mothers. The objective of the current analysis is to examine the prevalence and correlates of child apprehensions among female sex workers in Vancouver, Canada.MethodsAnalyses were drawn from the AESHA (An Evaluation of Sex Workers Health Access, 2010-present), a prospective cohort of street and off-street SWs, through outreach and semi-annual visits to the research office. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression were used to examine correlates of child apprehension.ResultsOf a total of 510 SWs, 350 women who had given birth to at least one child were included in the analyses (median age = 37 yrs: IQR: 31–44 yrs). The prevalence of child apprehension among mothers was 38.3%, with 37.4% reporting having been apprehended themselves by child welfare services. In multivariable analysis, servicing clients in outdoor public spaces (versus formal sex work establishments or informal indoor settings) (adjusted odds ratio, (aOR) = 2.73; 95%CI 1.27–5.90), history of injecting drugs (aOR = 2.53; 95%CI 1.42–4.49), Aboriginal ancestry (aOR = 1.66; 95%CI 1.01–2.74) were associated with increased odds of child apprehension.Discussion/ConclusionsChild apprehension rates are high, particularly among the most marginalized sex workers, including sex workers who use drugs and sex workers of Aboriginal ancestry. Structural reforms to child protection are urgently needed, that support family-based care address the historical legacy of colonization affecting Aboriginal peoples.

Promovendo a compreensão da composição aditiva em crianças surdas

O estudo tem como objetivo analisar a compreensão da composição aditiva dos números em crianças surdas. Este artigo descreve dois estudos que utilizaram a Tarefa de Compra de Nunes e Schliemann (1990) para investigar a compreensão da composição aditiva em crianças no contexto de contar dinheiro. No primeiro estudo, comparamos a compreensão da composição aditiva em crianças surdas à de crianças ouvintes da mesma idade. No segundo estudo, realizamos uma breve intervenção para avaliar a possibilidade de melhorar sua compreensão de composição aditiva. Concluímos que intervenções ainda que breves, mas teoricamente significativas e claramente direcionadas, podem ser usadas para melhorar o desempenho das crianças surdas nas tarefas que avaliam a composição aditiva.

Aboriginal women's experiences of accessing health care when state apprehension of children is being threatened

To report findings from a study examining the impact of the threat of child removal on Aboriginal women's experiences accessing of healthcare services. A wealth of data highlights the higher proportion of Aboriginal children in government care in Canada compared with non-Aboriginal children. Aboriginal women experience poorer health outcomes than non-Aboriginal women and face significant barriers to healthcare access. However, little is known about how these phenomena may intersect. The study was conducted in two phases: (1) a secondary analysis of interviews with Aboriginal women and healthcare providers (n=7) that were collected for a larger study; and (2) primary interviews with Aboriginal women (n=9) and healthcare providers (n=8), conducted between July-October 2011. Postcolonial feminist perspectives and the principles of exploratory, qualitative research guided this ethnographic study. Data were analysed using principles of thematic analysis and interpretive description. Aboriginal women whose children are involved with the child protection system often experience complex sociopolitical and economic challenges, which intersect with the threat of apprehension. Such threat did not impact women's decisions to seek healthcare services for their children, but experiences of racism, prejudice and discrimination in mainstream healthcare agencies and the fear of child apprehension influenced their decisions to access health care for themselves in ways that deterred access. Racism, judgment and discrimination towards Aboriginal mothers in healthcare agencies must be addressed. Educating healthcare providers about culturally safe approaches to care is critical to mitigating the ongoing impact of colonialism and its effects on health of Aboriginal people.

High Lifetime Pregnancy and Low Contraceptive Usage Among Sex Workers Who Use Drugs- An Unmet Reproductive Health Need

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to describe levels of pregnancy and contraceptive usage among a cohort of street-based female sex workers (FSWs) in Vancouver.MethodsThe study sample was obtained from a community-based prospective cohort study (2006-2008) of 211 women in street-based sex work who use drugs, 176 of whom had reported at least one prior pregnancy. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate lifetime pregnancy prevalence, pregnancy outcomes (miscarriage, abortion, adoption, child apprehension, child custody), and contraceptive usage. In secondary analyses, associations between contraceptive usage, individual and interpersonal risk factors and high number of lifetime pregnancies (defined as greater than the sample mean of 4) were examined.ResultsAmong our sample, 84% reported a prior pregnancy, with a mean of 4 lifetime pregnancies (median = 3; IQR: 2-5). The median age of women reporting 5+ pregnancies was 38 years old [interquartile range (IQR): 25.0-39.0] compared to 34 years [IQR: 25.0-39.0] among women reporting 4 or fewer prior pregnancies. 45% were Caucasian and 47% were of Aboriginal ancestry. We observed high rates of previous abortion (median = 1;IQR:1-3), apprehension (median = 2; IQR:1-4) and adoption (median = 1; IQR:1-2) among FSWs who reported prior pregnancy. The use of hormonal and insertive contraceptives was limited. In bivariate analysis, tubal ligation (OR = 2.49; [95%CI = 1.14-5.45]), and permanent contraceptives (e.g., tubal ligation and hysterectomy) (OR = 2.76; [95%CI = 1.36-5.59]) were both significantly associated with having five or more pregnancies.ConclusionThese findings demonstrate high levels of unwanted pregnancy in the context of low utilization of effective contraceptives and suggest a need to improve the accessibility and utilization of reproductive health services, including family planning, which are appropriately targeted and tailored for FSWs in Vancouver.

Bilingualism and language awareness in young children

Abstract This paper explores the concept of Language Awareness (LA) in relation to the acquisition of two languages by very young children. It has become a commonplace to allege the heightened LA of young bilinguals, and tests have been devised to characterise its features. A distinction is drawn between fully‐fledged LA and what may be its rudimentary forerunner — ‘speaker awareness’, preceding the child's apprehension of codes as such. Factors favouring bilingual development, and bilingual outcomes, are reviewed, as the background to the argument that bilinguals’ enforced awareness of linguistic diversity triggers their response to codes. Recent research (Karniol, 1990, 1992) has purported to reveal new types of LA, and claimed that awareness of codes per se is a prerequisite for the ability to develop a second language. The data supporting this claim, and its consequences, are investigated, and earlier studies of bilingualism reviewed in order to throw light on the type of evidence young children might...

Etude de l'invariance d'une relation spatiale chez les bébés de 4 à 9 mois : être entre deux objets

Summary : How do 5 to 9 month-old infants master the invariant « to be in between » ? Two experiments investigated the child's apprehension of the spatial relationship, « an object is between two other objects », and their detection of the invariance of this relationship over displacements of the objects. 57 infants, aged 4 to 9 months, were presented with objects undergoing three types of movement : two rotations in the horizontal plane (180° and 90°) and a rotation in the vertical plane. These movements were visible in one experiment and invisible in the second one. Only the central object was moveable, and the infants were expected to look at and to grasp that object after the display was moved. The results show that the infants tended to look at the central object, even when they did not grasp it or grasped a different object. Performance varied as a function of conditions, the easiest condition being the 180° rotation, the 90° one being always the most difficult. It is concluded that infants as young as 5 month master the invariant « to be in between » whether the display is visible or not when moved. Key words : spatial invariant, in between relationship, sensori-motor coordination.

American and Swedish Children's Apprehension about Communication: A Comparative Study

Apprehension about communication is the fear of avoidance of verbal interaction which results in shyness, timidity, or reticence. Little is known about the effects of culture on apprehension about communication, especially in children. This study compared amounts of apprehension about communication among 5- to 11-yr.-old boys and girls in the USA (N = 369) and Sweden (N = 406). Significant differences in apprehension about communication as measured by the Personal Report of Communication Fear were found for American and Swedish subjects; the Swedish students over-all showed more apprehension.