Child's Native Language Research Articles

Alternative Augmentative Communication in paediatric dentistry: a mighty tool to amplify mother tongue's power.

The role of a child's mother tongue in shaping his/her identity and emotional development is crucial. In the context of paediatric dentistry, this principle should always be reminded. The child's right to effective communication, even when a language barrier exists, is a fundamental principle, as recently stated in the 'Rights from the Start' rights fact sheet. Preserving a child's native language in the dental setting, especially in the context of an increasingly diverse society with a significant number of refugee children, is essential. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) strategies can assist in bridging language gaps and improving treatment outcomes, blending with the traditional approaches used in paediatric dentistry. The article promotes flexibility, innovation, and empathy in paediatric dentistry to provide optimal care and ensure that every child's rights are respected. • The relationship with one's mother language plays a central role in children's growth and in the relationship they can develop with the world, "motherised" by the words of the caregiver. • The interaction between immigrant children from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds and dentists providing their care requires the integration of traditional paediatric dental techniques with AAC strategies that can compensate for deficient oral communication. • Dentists treating immigrant children should follow the suggestions proposed in this article to establish the best and most tailored paediatric setting for the child's specific needs.

The impact of educational and medical systems on autistic children from multilingual American homes: A systematic review.

Research has found that autistic children can navigate multilingual schools and communities without harming their language skills or school success. However, they may encounter specific challenges within the United States, where educational and healthcare systems are insufficiently equipped to meet their needs. This review examined 46 US-based studies on the topic and findings reveal persistent deficit-based ideas about multilingualism and autism (e.g., professionals recommending that autistic students only speak and learn in English) accompanied by patterns of unequal identification of autism among multilingual children. These findings highlight issues of disproportionality and inadequate access to educational and healthcare resources. However, recent studies indicate that incorporating a child's native language in education not only enhances learning and behavioral outcomes but also boosts cognitive functions like problem-solving and planning. Taken as a whole, current research suggests that intentionally addressing linguistic diversity will allow educational and medical systems to better serve autistic children.

Preference for native-accented peers in monolingual and bilingual children acquiring Czech

ABSTRACT The way a talker speaks influences how they are socially perceived. Social preferences based on language are present already in early childhood: children generally prefer to interact with those who speak the child's native language or native accent. Prior findings are inconclusive as to whether the accent-based social biases could be reduced by more varied language experience, including bilingual upbringing. This study reports a friendship-choice task administered to 49 5- to 6-year-old children acquiring Czech (26 monolinguals and 23 bilinguals). The results showed that both monolingual and bilingual children had a preference for native-accented peers. In bilingual children, however, this native-speaker preference was reliably smaller than in monolingual children. These findings demonstrate that foreign accent is a strong cue for friendship choice even in the linguistically homogeneous, Czech-speaking society, and that the effect of foreign accent is attenuated by a child's bilingual language experience.

Immersion in dual-language programs does not impede children's native language processing.

The benefits of dual-language immersion (DLI) versus English-only classrooms for minority-language speakers' acquisition of English have been well documented. However, less is known about the effect(s) of DLI on majority-language speakers' native English skills. Prior studies largely used accuracy-focused measures to index children's language skills; it is possible that processing-based tasks are more sensitive to the effects of DLI experience. Thirty-three monolingual native English-speaking children attending English-only classrooms and thirty-three English-speaking children attending English-Spanish DLI matched in age, gender, nonverbal IQ, and socio-economic status were tested twice, 1 year apart, on standardized and processing-based measures of English vocabulary and morphosyntax. We ran linear mixed-effects models to examine the extent to which group and time would predict scores on knowledge-based measures of vocabulary and morphosyntactic knowledge, as well as accuracy and reaction times on processing-based measures of English vocabulary and morphosyntax. Results revealed comparable levels of growth in English for both groups. A subtle effect of DLI was observed on a lexical-decision task: bilinguals were slower in Year 1 but both groups were equally efficient in Year 2. These results indicate that DLI programs have minimal impact on majority-language speakers' native-language skills in the age-range tested. This study is the first to longitudinally examine processing-based native language outcomes in bilingual children in DLI classrooms. We do not find evidence that DLI exposure carries a cost to native language development, even when indexed by processing measures. This should reassure parents, educators, and policymakers in that there are no downsides to DLI.

Applying the language acquisition model to the solution small language processing tasks

The problem of building a computer model of a small language was under solution. The relevance of this task is due to the following considerations: the need to eliminate the information inequality between speakers of different languages; the need for new tools for the study of poorly understood languages, as well as innovative approaches to language modeling in the low-resource context; the problem of supporting and developing small languages.There are three main objectives in solving the problem of small natural language processing at the stage of describing the problem situation: to justify the problem of modeling language in the context of resource scarcity as a special task in the field of natural languages processing, to review the literature on the relevant topic, to develop the concept of language acquisition model with a relatively small number of available resources. Computer modeling techniques using neural networks, semi-supervised learning and reinforcement learning were involved.The paper provides a review of the literature on modeling the learning of vocabulary, morphology, and grammar of a child's native language. Based on the current understanding of the language acquisition and existing computer models of this process, the architecture of the system of small language processing, which is taught through modeling of ontogenesis, is proposed. The main components of the system and the principles of their interaction are highlighted. The system is based on a module built on the basis of modern dialogical language models and taught in some rich-resources language (e.g., English). During training, an intermediate layer is used which represents statements in some abstract form, for example, in the symbols of formal semantics. The relationship between the formal recording of utterances and their translation into the target low-resource language is learned by modeling the child's acquisition of vocabulary and grammar of the language. One of components stands for the non-linguistic context in which language learning takes place.This article explores the problem of modeling small languages. A detailed substantiation of the relevance of modeling small languages is given: the social significance of the problem is noted, the benefits for linguistics, ethnography, ethnology and cultural anthropology are shown. The ineffectiveness of approaches applied to large languages in conditions of a lack of resources is noted. A model of language learning by means of ontogenesis simulation is proposed, which is based both on the results obtained in the field of computer modeling and on the data of psycholinguistics.

English language teaching methodology for non-native speakers

Main aim of the study was focused on the non-native English speakers and the difficulties they face while learning English as a second language (ESL) and the part of teachers. It is generally felt that the English language plays a vital role in the job market so it is mandatory to learn the language. when the students enroll for the courses to develop the language most of the time, they do not succeed because of various reasons like affecting teaching, lack of motivation, lack of practice sessions, poor training modules, etc. The method of relying on physical actions (Total physical response - TPR)developed by psychologist Jit is based on structural linguistics, behaviorism, and the humanistic direction in teaching, as well as on the position of psychology on the coordination of speech and physical actions that accompany it. The method develops the ideas of the natural method. Its essence lies in the fact that when teaching a foreign language, it is necessary to simulate the process of mastering children's native language, which is assimilated in parallel with the performance of appropriate physical actions. The perception of structures is facilitated if it is accompanied by actions performed by the teacher and students.

Statistical word learning in Catalan-Spanish and English-speaking children with and without developmental language disorder.

A growing body of work shows that children with developmental language disorder (DLD) perform poorly on statistical word learning (SWL) tasks, consistent with the predictions of the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis that predicts that procedural memory is impaired in DLD. To date, however, SWL performance has not been compared across linguistically heterogeneous populations of children with DLD. To compare SWL performance in a group of age, sex and non-verbal IQ-matched Catalan-Spanish and English-speaking children with and without DLD. Two cohorts of children: (1) 35 Catalan-Spanish-speaking children with DLD (Mage = 8;7 years) and 35 age/sex-matched typical developing (TD) children (Mage = 8;9 years), and (2) 24 English-speaking children with DLD (Mage = 9;1 years) and 19 age/sex matched TD controls (Mage = 8;9 years) completed the tone version of a SWL task from Evans etal. (2009). Children listened to a tone language in which transitional probabilities within tone words were higher than those between words. For both Catalan-Spanish and English cohorts, overall performance for the children with DLD was poorer than that of the TD controls regardless of the child's native language. Item analysis revealed that children with DLD had difficulty tracking statistical information and using transitional probability to discover tone word boundaries within the input. For both the Catalan-Spanish and English-speaking children, SWL accounted for a significant amount of unique variance in Receptive and Expressive vocabulary. Likelihood ratio analysis revealed that for both Catalan-Spanish and English cohorts, children having performance ≤ 45% on the SWL task had an extremely high degree of likelihood of having DLD. The analysis also revealed that for the Catalan-Spanish and English-speaking children, scores of ≥ 75% and ≥ 70%, respectively, were highly likelihood to be children with normal language abilities. The findings add to a pattern suggesting that SWL is a mechanism that children rely on to acquire vocabulary. The results also suggest that SWL deficits, in particular when combined with other measures, may be a reliable diagnostic indicator for children with DLD regardless of the child's native language, and whether or not the child is bilingual or monolingual. What is already known on the subject Although there is some disagreement, a small but growing body of work suggests that deficits in procedural memory, as measured either by motor sequencing (Serial Reaction Time-SRT) or SWL tasks, may be part of the deficit profile of children with DLD. To date, studies have not examined SWL across linguistically heterogeneous populations of children with DLD to determine if it is a unique clinical marker of the disorder. What this paper adds to existing knowledge The results show that children with DLD, regardless of their native language, or whether the child is bi- or monolingual, have difficulties on SWL tasks, and that these deficits are linked to severity of the language disorder. Taken together, these results indicate that procedural memory deficits may be a core feature of DLD. This suggests that statistical-learning tasks using tone stimuli can also advance our understanding of statistical-learning abilities in children with DLD more globally. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The current study shows that statistical-learning tasks using tone stimuli can be used in conjunction with standardized assessment measures to differentiate children with DLD from children with typical language ability.

THE BALANCE BETWEEN LANGUAGE ACQUISION AND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN ELC

The article is devoted to the to the actual problem of the balanced use of English language teaching methods, some of which are considered by foreign researchers as close to the natural development of the child's language, and others are viewed as purely educational. Based on the analysis of foreign researches, the authors of the study clarified the concepts of " second language acquisition" and "second language learning", outlined their fundamental difference and importance in the process of studying English. It has been observed that some scholars prefer only methods of second language acquisition that resemble the natural process of a child's native language development. There is another vision of successful foreign language learning, whose proponents believe that when teaching a foreign language one should use both exercises that give an idea of ​​the language, and activities that resemble the natural process of language acquisition, where the first can not be ignored and plays an important role. The article suggests the examples of different approaches to the use of educational material at English language classroom. It is noted that their choice depends on the teacher, his understanding of the real language functioning in the community. T has been suggested, that wide exposure to a second language can be provided by extensive reading and listening, in particular out of ELC. This can be assisted by parents and their involvement to students’ studying. The results of a survey of students on their preferences in mastering the English language and observation of the real situation in the classroom are presented. The paper discusses the debatable nature of the problem and need for its further development is emphasized.

La educación para la paz como instrumento para validar derechos humanos, lingüísticos y culturales Peace education as an instrument to validate linguistic and cultural human rights

La educación para la paz como instrumento para validar derechos humanos, lingüísticos y culturales Peace education as an instrument to validate linguistic and cultural human rights Karla Del Carpio Abstract This article emphasizes the need to join efforts to ensure that the human rights especially of indigenous children are respected and promoted through quality education so that their childhood is enriched. It is therefore necessary to improve the type of bilingual education that indigenous communities receive, for example, Tsotsil children in Chiapas, Mexico. Historically, this population has received a subtractive type of bilingual education; process in which the child's indigenous language has only been used while learning Spanish and then such a language (Spanish) replaces the child's native language. This confirms that bilingual education is not simply about teaching content in two languages, that is, this type of program is linked to political movements related to civil rights, educational equity, integration and assimilationist policies. On the other hand, bilingual education is a component that is part of a social, economic, educational, cultural and political framework. In the same way, it is essential to recognize the situation of the languages involved in this type of programs since economic, social and political factors influence their status. It is concluded that both education and the school need to become instruments of equity, inclusion, freedom and harmony. Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/imjcr.v9n1a1

The Effect of Foreign Language Education on Preschoolers’ Native Language Development

The present study is conducted to examine how foreign language education may affect preschool children's native language development. The study was carried out with 70 children who were 48-60 months-old and attending a public preschool in Alanya, a district of Antalya, in Turkey. The Solomon Four-Group Design was used. Children’s native language skills were assessed via the Turkish Early Language Development Test (Tedil-3) and the experimental process took 8 weeks. Mann Whitney U and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Tests were used in the analysis of the data as the data did not show normal distribution. After determining the effect of the experimental procedure, the children included in the control groups were subjected to the same experimental procedure for 8 weeks under the “right to benefit from the experiment process” which has never been applied before in any studies in Turkey. The findings were discussed within the framework of the literature and various suggestions were presented.

The Effect of Foreign Language Education on Preschoolers’ Native Language Development

The present study is conducted to examine how foreign language education may affect preschool children's native language development. The study was carried out with 70 children who were 48-60 months-old and attending a public preschool in Alanya, a district of Antalya, in Turkey. The Solomon Four-Group Design was used. Children’s native language skills were assessed via the Turkish Early Language Development Test (Tedil-3) and the experimental process took 8 weeks. Mann Whitney U and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Tests were used in the analysis of the data as the data did not show normal distribution. After determining the effect of the experimental procedure, the children included in the control groups were subjected to the same experimental procedure for 8 weeks under the “right to benefit from the experiment process” which has never been applied before in any studies in Turkey. The findings were discussed within the framework of the literature and various suggestions were presented.

American Speech-Language Pathologists' Training and Legislative Knowledge When Working With Immigrant and Refugee Populations: A Qualitative Study

Background American educational legislation suggests culturally competent speech and language services should be provided in a child's native language, but the number of multilingual speech-language pathologists (SLPs) is negligible. Consequently, many monolingual English-speaking practitioners are being tasked with providing services to these populations. This requires that SLPs are educated about cultural and linguistic diversity as well as the legislation that concerns service provision to non-English or limited English proficiency speakers. Purpose This qualitative study explored the experiences of monolingual, American, English-speaking SLPs and clinical fellows who have worked with immigrant and refugee families within a preschool context. It investigated what training SLPs received to serve this population and what knowledge these SLPs possessed with regard to federal legislation governing the provision of services to culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) communities. Method Ten American clinicians with experience treating CLD children of refugee and immigrant families in the context of preschool service provision participated in the study. Semistructured interviews were utilized to better understand the type of training clinicians received prior to and during their service delivery for CLD populations. Additionally, questions were asked to explore the degree to which practitioners understood federal mandates for ethical and effective service provision. The data collected from these interviews were coded and analyzed using the principles of grounded theory. Findings The results of this study revealed that there was a general sense of unpreparedness when working with CLD clients. This lack of training also attributed to a deficiency of knowledge surrounding legislation governing service provision to CLD populations.

Selective attention to the mouth of talking faces in monolinguals and bilinguals aged 5 months to 5 years.

A talking face provides redundant cues on the mouth that might support language learning and highly salient social cues in the eyes. What drives children's looking toward the mouth versus eyes of a talking face? This study reports data from 292 children who viewed faces speaking English, French, and Russian. We investigated the impact of children's age (5 months to 5 years) and language background (monolingual English, monolingual French, bilingual English-French), and the speaker's language (dominant, nondominant, or nonnative) relative to children's native language(s). Data from 129 bilingual adults were also collected for comparison. Five-month-olds showed balanced attention to the eyes and mouth, but children up to 5 years tended to be most interested in the mouth. In contrast, adults were most interested in the eyes. We found little evidence for different patterns of attention for monolinguals versus bilinguals, or to a native versus a nonnative speaker. Using percentile scores, monolinguals with larger productive vocabularies looked more at the mouth, while bilinguals with larger comprehension vocabularies looked marginally less at the mouth, although both effects were small and not as robust with raw vocabulary scores. Children showed large but stable individual variability in their face scanning patterns across different speakers. Our results show that the way that children allocate their attention to talking faces continues to change from infancy through the preschool years and beyond. Future studies will need to go beyond looking at bilingualism, speaker language, and vocabulary size to understand what drives children's in-the-moment attention to talking faces. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Impact of nursing interventions on adherence to treatment with antituberculosis drugs in children and young people: A nonrandomized controlled trial.

To evaluate the association of a new nursing intervention on the adherence to antituberculosis treatment in a paediatric cohort (<18years). Tuberculosis remains a public health problem worldwide. The risk of developing tuberculosis after primary infection and its severity are higher in children. Proper adherence to antituberculosis treatment is critical for disease control. Nonrandomized controlled trial; Phase 1, retrospective (2011-2013), compared with Phase 2, prospective with intervention (2015-2016), in a referral centre for paediatric tuberculosis in Spain (NCT03230409). A total of 359 patients who received antituberculosis drugs after close contact with a smear-positive patient (primary chemoprophylaxis) or were treated for latent tuberculosis infection or tuberculosis disease were included, 261 in Phase 1 and 98 in Phase 2. In Phase 2, a new nurse-led intervention was implemented in all patients and included two educational steps (written information in the child's native language and follow-up telephone calls) and two monitoring steps (Eidus-Hamilton test and follow-up questionnaire) that were exclusively carried out by nurses. Adherence to antituberculosis treatment increased from 74.7% in Phase 1% to 87.8% in Phase 2 (p=0.014; Chi-square test), after the implementation of the nurse-led intervention. In Phase 2, nonadherence was only associated with being born abroad (28.6% vs. 7.8%; p=0.019; Chi-square test) and with foreign origin families (27.3% vs. 0%; p<0.0001; Chi-square test). The nurse-led intervention was associated to an increase in adherence to antituberculosis treatment. Immigrant-related variables remained major risk factors for sub-optimal adherence in a low-endemic setting.

Children With SLI Can Exhibit Reduced Attention to a Talker's Mouth

AbstractIt has been demonstrated that children with specific language impairment (SLI) show difficulties not only with auditory but also with audiovisual speech perception. The goal of this study was to assess whether children with SLI might show reduced attention to the talker's mouth compared to their typically developing (TD) peers. An additional aim was to determine whether the pattern of attention to a talking face would be related to a specific subtype of SLI. We used an eye‐tracker methodology and presented a video of a talker speaking the children's native language. Results revealed that children with SLI paid significantly less attention to the mouth than the TD children. More specifically, it was also observed that children with a phonological‐syntactic deficit looked less to the mouth as compared to the children with a lexical‐syntactic deficit.

Pediatric Speech Perception in Noise

An acceptable acoustical environment is necessary for effective communication and learning. Children who experience abnormally poor speech perception in noise, including those with normal hearing sensitivity, are at risk for speech and language delay, reading disorders, psychosocial problems, and academic failure. The biological bases of speech perception in noise are complex and include processes at cortical as well as sub-cortical levels of the auditory nervous system. In children, the ability to perceive speech in degraded listening conditions improves significantly with age in parallel with developmental changes in the auditory nervous system. Difficulty in listening to speech in noisy surroundings is a common symptom associated with auditory processing disorders (APD). Clinical assessment of speech perception in noise quantifies potential problems that a child might face in daily listening situations. Optimally, pediatric speech in noise tests are designed to meet minimal psychometric criteria. A speech in noise test should be appropriate for the child's age and native language so as to minimize the role of linguistic factors. A diagnosis of APD should not be made based solely on a speech in noise test but, rather, on a battery of tests, each exploring a different suprathreshold auditory process. Speech in noise tests should be used and interpreted with extreme caution when assessing auditory processing in children with co-existing peripheral hearing loss. Children with normal hearing sensitivity, whose performance on tests using competing acoustic signals is below normal, can benefit from specific intervention and the use of signal enhancing devices such as FM systems. Keywords: ABR (auditory brainstem response), APD (auditory processing disorders), CANS (central auditory nervous system), (C)APD [(central) auditory processing disorders], HINT (Hearing In Noise Test), LISN (Listening in Spatialized Noise), MCR (message-to-competition ratio), SNR (signal-to-noise ratio), SRT (speech reception threshold)

The acceleration of spoken-word processing in children's native-language acquisition: An ERP cohort study

Healthy adults can identify spoken words at a remarkable speed, by incrementally analyzing word-onset information. It is currently unknown how this adult-level speed of spoken-word processing emerges during children's native-language acquisition. In a picture–word mismatch paradigm, we manipulated the semantic congruency between picture contexts and spoken words, and recorded event-related potential (ERP) responses to the words. Previous similar studies focused on the N400 response, but we focused instead on the onsets of semantic congruency effects (N200 or Phonological Mismatch Negativity), which contain critical information for incremental spoken-word processing. We analyzed ERPs obtained longitudinally from two age cohorts of 40 primary-school children (total n=80) in a 3-year period. Children first tested at 7 years of age showed earlier onsets of congruency effects (by approximately 70ms) when tested 2 years later (i.e., at age 9). Children first tested at 9 years of age did not show such shortening of onset latencies 2 years later (i.e., at age 11). Overall, children's onset latencies at age 9 appeared similar to those of adults. These data challenge the previous hypothesis that word processing is well established at age 7. Instead they support the view that the acceleration of spoken-word processing continues beyond age 7.

Mathematics Language In-Class Instruction

Abstract The goal of the research was to compare the level of mathematic language acquisition between students of lower grades in special elementary schools for children who are hearing impaired and students of a mainstream elementary school. A total of 239 children attending mainstream and special schools in the territory of Serbia were included in the research. Instruction of mathematics in schools for students who are hearing impaired has a different character as it contains elements of native language instruction. Obtained results show a significant difference in some fields. A conclusion stating that the level of language acquisition is in direct correlation with the level of acquisition of mathematics language imposes itself. What that means is that hearing impaired children have not only to comprehend mathematics relations, but also to learn mathematic terms in a completely different way as compared to children who are hearing. Key words: mathematics, acquisition, hearing impaired child (ProQuest: ... denotes formula omitted.) Introduction Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty. - Russell Mathematics is a way of communication between people (1). It is a form of language - international language - in which symbols are used for communication. Mastering a language in the context of a specific subject is a tough process for many pupils. It is not possible to learn the language of mathematics without learning its words - mathematic terms. Simple words, known to pupils, in the mathematical context get new, more or less unexpected meanings. Many pupils have trouble following lectures with mathematical content. The reasoning is an unfamiliarity with mathematical terms, symbols, rules, operations and algorithms. Unfortunately, the majority of pupils and teachers are not aware of the importance of adopting mathematical terms and their everyday use with its correlation to the native language. Here we can also look for the reason mathematics have always been one of the completely unjustified obstacles in many pupils' success. A child's native language and mathematic language play an important role in the process of conceptualizing mathematical ideas and the application of mathematic knowledge. In order to successfully understand and solve mathematical problems, especially verbal ones, it is necessary to understand mathematic vocabulary and grammar and to be able to translate symbols and expressions from mathematic to native language and vice versa (2). There are three components to every mathematical concept: linguistic (mathematical vocabulary, syntax, and rules of translation from mathematic language to native and vice versa), conceptual (mathematical idea and mental imagining of the term) and procedural (calculation procedure applied depending on the concept). In the early stages of learning a mathematical concept, the emphasis should be on the conceptual development and language (3). Yet, it is common for the process of learning mathematics in schools to be largely committed to procedural components and very little to the understanding of terminology, mathematic language translation, etc., which often leads to problems. One of the main components of solving textual problems is translation: 1) formulation of a realistic situation in the native language; 2) translation of language expressions into mathematic language (noticing and writing down the mathematical equation); 3) translating the mathematical results back into the native language and creating a response adequate to the given life situation. (4). The connection of mathematics instruction with speech is especially important characteristic in the instruction of mathematics in schools for students who are hearing impaired. This link between the language and mathematics makes this course-specific and posses a series of problems to be solved while lecturing the subject (5). …

Differing sequences of metaphonological development in French and English

Phonological awareness is thought to become increasingly analytic during early childhood. This study examines whether the proposed developmental sequence (syllable --> onset-rime --> phoneme) varies according to the characteristics of a child's native language. Experiment 1 compares the phonological segmentation skills of English speakers aged 4;11 (N = 10), 5;3 (N = 21), and 6;5 (N = 23) and French speakers aged 5;6 (N = 35), and 6;8 (N = 34). Experiment 2 assesses performance in the common unit task using English speakers aged 4;7 (N = 22), 5;7 (N = 23), and 6;11 (N = 22), and French speakers aged 4;7 (N = 20), 5;6 (N = 35), and 6;7 (N = 33). The experiments reveal crosslinguistic differences in the processing of syllables prior to school entry with French speakers exhibiting a greater consistency in manipulating syllables. Phoneme awareness emerges in both languages once reading instruction is introduced and rime awareness appears to follow rather than precede this event. Thus, the emergence of phonological awareness did not show a universal pattern but rather was subject to the influence of both native language and literacy.

Biliteracy and Second-Language Learners

Biliteracy and Second-Language Learners