Children's Math Learning Research Articles

Similarity or stereotypes? An investigation of how exemplar gender guides children's math learning.

How does the representation of boy and girl exemplars in curricular materials affect students' learning? We tested two competing hypotheses about the impact of gender exemplar on learning: First, in line with Social Learning Theory, children might exhibit a same-gender bias such that they prefer to learn from exemplars that match their gender (H1). Second, consistent with research on children's stereotypes about gender and math (e.g., associating boys with math competence), children might prefer to learn from exemplars who match their stereotypes about who is good at math (H2). We tested these hypotheses with children in middle school (N=166), a time of development in which stereotypes are well-engrained, but before gender differences in math achievement appear. Children viewed two distinct math strategies, each presented by a boy or girl exemplar. We then examined which strategy children employed on a subsequent math test as well as their perceived similarity to the exemplars and their awareness or endorsement of gender-math stereotypes. Children did not preferentially learn from same-gender exemplars. However, children with stereotypes associating boys with math were more likely to learn the more difficult strategy when it was presented by a boy exemplar than children who did not associate boys with math. The results of this study provide valuable insight into how children's stereotypes impact their real-world learning. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: How does the representation of boy and girl exemplars in children's curricular materials affect their learning? Past research demonstrates that children prefer to learn from same-gender exemplars, but also hold a stereotype that boys are better at math. In the current study, we test whether children preferentially adopt a math strategy presented by a boy or girl exemplar. Children who held the belief that boys are better at math were more likely to learn a difficult strategy from boy exemplars than children who did not endorse this stereotype.

Does inducing growth-oriented mindsets about math ability in parents enhance children's math mindsets, affect, and achievement?

A parent-directed intervention designed to foster growth-oriented mindsets about math was evaluated in a longitudinal randomized-control trial. Parents (N = 615; 61% White, 22% Black; 63% with at least a bachelor's degree) participated in the intervention or an active control condition in which they learned about the Common Core math curriculum. Parents reported on their math mindsets and parenting practices (e.g., autonomy-supportive math homework assistance) over 15-18 months; their young elementary school children's (Mage = 7.17 years; 50% girls) math adjustment (e.g., mindsets and achievement) was also assessed. The intervention (vs. control) led to sustained increases in parents' beliefs that math ability is malleable and math failure is beneficial for learning. The intervention, however, did not improve their math parenting practices or children's math adjustment relative to the control. Instead, there were generally improvements in math parenting practices and children's math adjustment over the course of the study regardless of condition, perhaps because the control condition provided parents with useful information about the Common Core math curriculum. Overall, the findings indicate that although the mindset intervention was effective in instilling stronger growth-oriented mindsets about math in parents, this did not translate into benefits for children's math learning over and above the active control condition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Cognitive and motivational numeracy parenting practices: Implications for children's numeracy engagement during early elementary school.

Parents are considered a major resource in children's numeracy development. The relative role of cognitive and motivational parenting practices, however, is unclear given that the two types of practices have largely been studied in isolation. The current study simultaneously estimated the contributions of several cognitive and motivational parenting practices hypothesized to be important, but which may have overlapping effects. To capture parents' cognitive practices, the level and structure (i.e., prompts vs. statements) of 529 American parents' (80% mothers; 65% White, 20% Black; 33% less than a bachelor's degree) numeracy talk was coded during a challenging numeracy activity. Parents' motivational practices were assessed by coding their autonomy support and control in the activity. Children's (Mage = 7.5 years; 49% girls) engagement of numeracy strategies was also coded. Multilevel minute-to-minute modeling predicting children's engagement from both cognitive and motivational parenting practices indicated that parents' cognitive practices, particularly advanced prompts, predicted children's subsequent engagement of numeracy strategies, which were often advanced. Parents' motivational practices, as reflected in their autonomy support (vs. control), also foreshadowed children's engagement. These effects of the two types of practices were independent of one another. Taken together, the findings are consistent with the idea that cognitive and motivational parenting practices provide distinct resources that can benefit children's math learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Long-term abacus training gains in children are predicted by medial temporal lobe anatomy and circuitry.

Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) is a widely used educational tool for enhancing math learning, offering an accessible and cost-effective method for classroom implementation. Despite its universal appeal, the neurocognitive mechanisms that drive the efficacy of AMC training remain poorly understood. Notably, although abacus training relies heavily on the rapid recall of number positions and sequences, the role of memory systems in driving long-term AMC learning remains unknown. Here, we sought to address this gap by investigating the role of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system in predicting long-term AMC training gains in second-grade children, who were longitudinally assessed up to fifth grade. Leveraging multimodal neuroimaging data, we tested the hypothesis that MTL systems, known for their involvement in associative memory, are instrumental in facilitating AMC-induced improvements in math skills. We found that gray matter volume in bilateral MTL, along with functional connectivity between the MTL and frontal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices, significantly predicted learning gains. Intriguingly, greater gray matter volume but weaker connectivity of the posterior parietal cortex predicted better learning outcomes, offering a more nuanced view of brain systems at play in AMC training. Our findings not only underscore the critical role of the MTL memory system in AMC training but also illuminate the neurobiological factors contributing to individual differences in cognitive skill acquisition. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We investigated the role of medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system in driving children's math learning following abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) training. AMC training improved math skills in elementary school children across their second and fifth grade. MTL structural integrity and functional connectivity with prefrontal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices predicted long-term AMC training-related gains.

Who's the winner? Children's math learning in competitive and collaborative scenarios.

Games are frequently used to promote math learning, yet the competitive and collaborative contexts introduced by games may exacerbate gender differences. In this study, 1st and 2nd grade children in the U.S. (ages 5-8; N = 274; 70% White, 15% Asian, 2% Black, 1% Native American, 14% mixed or other race; 17% Hispanic) played either a competitive, collaborative, or solo game to learn about a challenging novel math concept: proportion. Overall, both social contexts boosted perseverance and task attitudes. However, analyses revealed the competitive condition yielded gender differences in attention to proportion in the presence of competing cues, with older boys underperforming in the competition condition. Potential explanations for these findings, as well as implications for classroom math learning, are discussed.

Parental scaffolding and children's math ability: The type of activities matters.

A growing body of research has shown that parent-child math activities predict children's math competence. However, observational studies are limited. This study investigated maternal and paternal scaffolding behaviours in three types of parent-child math activities (i.e., worksheet, game and application activities) and their associations with children's formal and informal math abilities. Ninety-six 5-6-year-olds participated in this study with their mothers and fathers. All children completed three activities with their mothers and three comparable activities with their fathers. Parental scaffolding was coded for each parent-child dyadic activity. Children's formal and informal math abilities were tested individually using the Test of Early Mathematics Ability. Results showed that both mothers' and fathers' scaffolding in application activities significantly predicted their children's formal math ability even after controlling for background variables and their scaffoldings in the other two types of math activities. The findings highlight the importance of parent-child application activities in children's math learning.

Parents' math anxiety and their controlling and autonomy-supportive involvement in children's math learning: Implications for children's math achievement.

This research examined how parents' math anxiety is associated with their controlling and autonomy-supportive involvement in children's math learning; the contribution of such involvement to children's math achievement was also evaluated. Parents (N = 562; 62% White, 21% Black; 65% with at least a bachelor's degree) of young elementary school children (Mage = 7.48 years; 50% girls) reported on their math anxiety as well as controlling and autonomy-supportive involvement in children's math learning; observations were also made. At the same time and a year later, children's math achievement was assessed. Parents with higher math anxiety were more controlling (in both parents' reports and the observations) and less autonomy supportive (only in the observations) with children who had poorer math achievement. Notably, controlling parenting (in both parents' reports and the observations) was most likely to predict lower math achievement a year later among such children. The findings suggest math-anxious parents are prone to using practices with children struggling in math that further undermine their math achievement, which can create an unconstructive cycle for children's math learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Latina Mothers' Cultural Experiences, Beliefs, and Attitudes May Influence Children's Math Learning.

Drawing from a qualitative approach and through individual pláticas (processes of co-constructing knowledge through dialogue) as a linguistic and cultural framework, this work explored informal contextual factors valued by Spanish-speaking Latina mothers of children, three to five years of age and enrolled in a nonprofit California preschool. Results revealed that Latina mothers have cultural forms of knowledge which impact their children's educational experiences and engage in direct and indirect numeracy environments. While personal math experiences and home practices differed, Latina mothers experience and navigate their children's learning based on sociocultural aspects, influencing how they support their children's math learning. This study drew from sociocultural learning theories that value learning embedded within meaningful learning experiences. Patterns of family learning have several implications for educational practice, especially for Latine families whose parent participation is typically not as visible as White American English-speaking parents.

Unpacking the home numeracy environment: Examining dimensions of number activities in early childhood

A growing body of research has examined parents’ practices to support their young children's number learning at home, that is, the home numeracy environment. Many of these studies focus on formal and informal domains of numeracy activities, which are inconsistently defined and related to children's math learning. In this study, we explore dimensions of the home numeracy environment and examine their relations with children's math skills among a sample of 4-year-old children and their parents over the course of 1 year. Parents reported on the frequency of 21 numeracy activities when children were 4 and 5. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed a 2-factors solution: number-related play activities and use of educational materials with numbers. Frequency of play with numbers was positively related to children's ability to solve applied math problems at age 5, controlling for prior number skills, child age, and socioeconomic status. In contrast, neither measure of the home numeracy environment predicted symbolic number knowledge or non-symbolic number sense when controlling for covariates. These findings underscore the need to differentiate between factors of the home numeracy environment and to develop clear theoretical definitions of these factors.

Integrating Embodied Cognition and Information Processing: A Combined Model of the Role of Gesture in Children's Mathematical Environments.

Children learn and use various strategies to solve math problems. One way children's math learning can be supported is through their use of and exposure to hand gestures. Children's self-produced gestures can reveal unique, math-relevant knowledge that is not contained in their speech. Additionally, these gestures can assist with their math learning and problem solving by supporting their cognitive processes, such as executive function. The gestures that children observe during math instructions are also linked to supporting cognition. Specifically, children are better able to learn, retain, and generalize knowledge about math when that information is presented within the gestures that accompany an instructor's speech. To date, no conceptual model provides an outline regarding how these gestures and the math environment are connected, nor how they may interact with children's underlying cognitive capacities such as their executive function. In this review, we propose a new model based on an integration of the information processing approach and theory of embodied cognition. We provide an in-depth review of the related literature and consider how prior research aligns with each link within the proposed model. Finally, we discuss the utility of the proposed model as it pertains to future research endeavors.

Elementary school teachers' math anxiety and students' math learning: A large-scale replication.

A solid foundation in math is important for children's long-term academic success. Many factors influence children's math learning-including the math content students are taught in school, the quality of their instruction, and the math attitudes of students' teachers. Using a large and diverse sample of first-grade students (n=551), we conducted a large-scale replication of a previous study (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 2010, 1860; n=117), which found that girls in classes with highly math anxious teachers learned less math during the school year, as compared to girls whose math teachers were less anxious about math. With a larger sample, we found a negative relation between teachers' math anxiety and students' math achievement for both girls and boys, even after accounting for teachers' math ability and children's beginning of year math knowledge, replicating and extending those previous results. Our findings strengthen the support for the hypothesis that teachers' math anxiety is one factor that undermines children's math learning and could push students off-track during their initial exposure to math in early elementary school.

Maternal Support of Children's Math Learning in Associations Between Family Income and Math School Readiness.

This study examined maternal support of children's math learning at 36months (n=140) as a mediator of the association between early childhood family income and children's counting and calculation skills at 4½ and 6-7years. Family income was associated with this measure of children's math school readiness, but the association was almost entirely indirect and mediated by observed maternal support of children's numerical skills at 36months. Maternal support of children's spatial concept and general learning (cognitive stimulation and sensitivity) were not significant mediators of this association. Results suggest that income-based gaps in counting and calculation skills at school entry may be due in part to the constraints that low family income places on early numerical learning support.

Young Children's Mathematical Learning From Intelligent Characters.

Children’s math learning (N = 217; M age = 4.87 years; 63% European American, 96% college‐educated families) from an intelligent character game was examined via social meaningfulness (parasocial relationships [PSRs]) and social contingency (parasocial interactions, e.g., math talk). In three studies (data collected in the DC area: 12/2015–10/2017), children’s parasocial relationships and math talk with the intelligent character predicted quicker, more accurate math responses during virtual game play. Children performed better on a math transfer task with physical objects when exposed to an embodied character (Study 2), and when the character used socially contingent replies, which was mediated by math talk (Study 3). Results suggest that children’s parasocial relationships and parasocial interactions with intelligent characters provide new frontiers for 21st century learning.

Maya Loves Tubby and you Should Too, If you Want to Understand and Evaluate Children's Math Learning in the Digital Age

BackgroundThis article describes a detailed, hypothetical, but quite plausible account of how one child, Maya, made use of math learning software on a touch screen device (Tubby).Focus of StudyThe author discusses the kind of research that is possible and necessary to understand children's learning in the digital age, and how that research can contribute to the development of even more effective educational software, and can also largely eliminate the need for high-stakes testing and standard achievement tests.Research DesignResearch of this type will require use of complex statistical techniques as well as qualitative methods, such as case studies. The tablet can provide detailed descriptions of children's engagement in the various activities. Tubby can also be used for summative research that provides a valuable portrait of the child's learning over the course of the year.ConclusionComputers can, in principle, engage children in meaningful learning and at the same time provide educators with the tools for understanding, improving, evaluating, and assessing children's learning.

Participatory Design Research as a Practice for Systemic Repair: Doing Hand-in-Hand Math Research with Families

ABSTRACT Success and failure in formal mathematics education has been used to legitimize stratification. We describe participatory design research as a methodology for systemic repair. The analysis describes epistemic authority—exercising the right or the power to know—as a form of agency in processes of mathematical problem solving and learning. We asked: What will aid families in advocating for their children's math learning, particularly when they expressed concern about their ability to do so? Participatory design research provided a collaborative and iterative method to work with people who shape math learning: parents, children, teachers, community organizers, researchers, curriculum developers, and mathematicians. Data from four years of participant observation involved the design, facilitation, and dissemination of workshops and take-home materials and family case studies. As participating families claimed epistemic authority, institutional barriers became more visible. This tension maps where participatory design methodology can evolve to address systemic change.

Points to Ponder: Gesture and Language in Math Talk

With the introduction of Common Core State Standards, mathematical learning and problem solving in the academic environment is more linguistically demanding. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) can support students with language impairment and teachers charged with new curricular demands. The role of gestural communication as a support for children's math learning and as an instructional strategy during math education is reviewed. Findings are presented from a recent pilot study on the gesture and language production of 3-, 4- and 5-year- old children as they solve early arithmetic and fraction problems. Children spontaneously produced deictic and representational gestures that most often matched their spoken solutions. A few children exhibited gesture-speech mismatches in which the gesture contained semantic content not contained in the speech alone. This can suggest some underlying knowledge that would not be apparent without the gesture. Furthermore, the investigator introduced gestured prompts with some preschool participants using spontaneous gestures previously observed by successful peers. Gesture's role in early mathematic areas preceding kindergarten and specific gesturing strategies effective in the academic environment continue to be explored.