Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire Research Articles

The Relationship Between Authoritative Parenting Style, Oral Sensory Processing, and Eating Behaviour Related to Picky Eaters among Toddlers in Klang Valley, Malaysia

This study aimed to examine the relationship between authoritative parenting style, oral sensory processing, and eating behaviour related to picky eaters among children aged 3 to 5 years. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 99 mother/father-child dyads from several Klang Valley nurseries and kindergartens. Online survey data collection, including the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ), the Child Sensory Profile 2 Questionnaire (CSP-2) (Oral Domain), the Parental Style Dimension Questionnaire (PSDQ), and a demographic questionnaire. Appointment-based collection of anthropometric measurements (weight and height) was conducted. Pearson correlation was used to determine the relationship between eating behaviour (picky eaters), oral sensory processing, and authoritative parenting scores, independent t-test to determine nutrition status and eating behaviour, and chi-square test to examine picky eater status and oral sensory processing classification. Results show that the prevalence of picky eaters is 45.5%. Picky eaters scored low in food responsiveness and food enjoyment but high in satiety response and slowness in eating. There was only an association between picky eating behaviour and oral sensory processing (r=0.22, p=0.003), but no correlation between these indicators and authoritative parenting styles (p>0.05). No significant difference was found in nutrition status between non-picky eaters and picky eaters (p>0.05). According to this study, nearly one out of two children is a picky eater, which is defined by less enjoyment of food, less responsiveness to food, eating slowly, and feeling full quickly. This research is likely to aid in the development of more targeted intervention programmes for picky eaters.

Novel Model of Childhood Appetitive Traits in Children with Obesity.

Appetitive traits have a central role in energy intake and development of obesity. Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) is a validated psychometric tool to measure appetitive traits in children. This study sought to assess the CEBQ factor structure in children with obesity. We hypothesized that hedonic traits are more prominent with obesity and in older children. This cross-sectional observational study used CEBQ data from three geographically diverse centers in children with obesity. Eight known CEBQ subscales and the established factor model were compared by severity of obesity, age and sex. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to define the appetitive trait factor structure was undertaken in a training dataset and validated in a test set. Children with obesity (n=814) showed higher food response, enjoyment of food, emotional overeating and desire to drink compared to population-based controls (p < 0.001) that correlated with obesity severity. The EFA identified a novel six-factor model with a new "Food avidity" factor that explained 15.8% of the variance. Satiety responsiveness (p < 0.001) and emotional undereating (p = 0.03) were lower in youth over six years compared to younger, while food fussiness and food avidity were the same, without any sex differences. CEBQ is useful to assess appetitive traits in children with obesity. The novel factor structure in youth with obesity suggests that temporal or phenotypic differences necessitate a revision of the established factor model. The new factor structure may be used to develop a hyperphagia questionnaire.

The Relationship Between Picky Eater and The Nutrional Status of Preschool Children at Gotong Royong Kindergarden in Surabaya, Indonesia

One of the eating behavior disorders in preschool children is picky eater, a behavior that is picky about food so that children experience limited consumption of a variety of foods. This impacts the nutritional status of children, which can affect their health. Therefore, this study aims to determine the relationship between children's eating behavior disorders (picky eaters) and the nutritional status of preschool children at Kindergarten Gotong Royong Surabaya, Indonesia. This was an observational analytical research with a cross-sectional research design. The sampling method used purposive sampling technique. Data were collected by filling out the CEBQ (Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire) questionnaire and anthropometric measurements of body weight and height, as well as measuring nutritional status using the indicators BB/TB (0-6 months) and BMI/U (&gt;60 months). All data were processed using IBM SPSS v25.0 software with the Spearman rank correlation test. The results of the study showed that 53.6% of preschool children at KB-TK Gotong Royong Surabaya had eating behavior disorders (picky eaters), 46.4% of the children were non-picky eaters, 41.0% had poor nutritional status, and 43.6% had normal nutrition who were mostly non-picky eaters. The bivariate analysis results of the correlation test obtained a p-value of 0.001 (α&gt;0.05). These data showed a relationship between picky eating disorders and the nutritional status of preschool children at Kindergarten Gotong Royong Surabaya.

A mesocorticolimbic insulin receptor gene co-expression network moderates the association between early life adversity and food approach eating behaviour style in childhood

Insulin receptors, located in brain regions associated with reward sensitivity and decision-making, facilitate insulin action in the brain, modulating intracellular signaling cascades, gene expression, and neural activity. Here, we tested if variations in the expression of the insulin receptor gene network in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum (STR) moderate the association between early life adversity and eating behaviour in childhood and if this moderation is sex-specific. Participants from the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment (MAVAN) and Basal Influences on the Baby's Development (BIBO) were included as two independent cohorts. A biologically-informed polygenic score reflecting functional variation of the mesocorticolimbic insulin receptor gene network was created by using insulin receptor co-expression data from the PFC and STR in mice, and validated in humans through filtering by homologous expression in PFC using well-known databases. Early life adversity exposure was measured as a composite score. Eating behaviour was characterized using the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire administered to mothers of children aged 4 and 6 years in MAVAN, and 6 years in BIBO. We found that only in those with high expression of the mesocorticolimbic insulin receptor gene network a higher early adversity score associated with a higher desire to drink in 4-year boys and 6-year girls, as well as a higher food approach score and food approach/food avoidance ratio in 4-year girls. Also, a higher early life adversity was associated with higher food responsiveness, food approach score and food approach/food avoidance ratio at 6 years in the MAVAN full sample. The moderation observed on desire to drink was partially replicated in BIBO children aged 6 years. Identifying individual differences in response to early adversity may help to prioritize individuals at high risk for long-term disease and design suitable interventions.

Eating habits and behaviors in children with Dravet syndrome: A case-control study.

This study evaluated food preferences and eating behaviors of individuals with Dravet syndrome. Patients diagnosed with Dravet syndrome were recruited, as well as a control group composed of siblings of patients with epilepsy (any form). The Food Preference Questionnaire and the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire were completed by caregivers along with two open-ended questions regarding eating challenges. Seventy-eight participants (45 with Dravet syndrome and 33 controls) were included. Compared to controls, mean scores for food preference were lower for fruits (p = .000099), meats and fish (p = .00094), and snacks (p = .000027) in Dravet syndrome. People with Dravet syndrome also had less emotional overeating (p = .0085) and food enjoyment (p = .0012), but more slowness in eating (p = .00021) and food fussiness (p = .0064). In a subgroup analysis of only pediatric (age <18 years) patients, similar results were observed for both food preferences and eating habits. In qualitative data, caregivers most commonly reported difficulties with fixation on specific foods. This study demonstrates specific food preferences and challenging eating behaviors in individuals with Dravet syndrome. These data provide potential avenues for nutritional interventions and behavioral therapies to increase the quality of life of patients and their families.

CHILD FEEDING BEHAVIOUR, NUTRITIONAL STATUS, AND FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY AMONG PRESCHOOLERS IN A SOCIALLY VULNERABLE AREA

Food insecurity (FI) can directly impact children’s eating behaviour and nutritional status, potentially leading to long-term health issues. This study aimed to examine the relationship between children’s eating behaviour, nutritional status, and FI among preschoolers in a socially vulnerable area of a municipality in Southern Brazil. A cross-sectional, quantitative study was conducted involving children aged 2 to 5 who were beneficiaries of the Bolsa Família Program (BFP). Data were collected using the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) and the Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale (EBIA). Nutritional status was classified using height-for-age and BMI-for-age indices. The study comprised 90 children, with 59.0% experiencing food insecurity. Girls exhibited a higher average score of disordered eating behaviour compared to boys, indicating a stronger interest in food. Nutritional status analysis revealed a high prevalence of overweight risk (43.30%), particularly among boys. A significant association was observed between BMI-for-age (eutrophy) and food insecurity (p=0.003). The majority of eutrophic children also experience food insecurity. There is a need to carry out research on similar topics in order to support the development of public policies on food and nutritional security.

Infant and young child feeding practices as mediators in the relationship between early temperament and children's eating behaviors: A longitudinal study during COVID-19 pandemic

Simultaneously investigating the influence of multiple early temperament dimensions on children's eating behaviors through infant and young child feeding practices may be essential for developing optimal intervention strategies. This longitudinal study gathered data at two assessment points: Time 1, evaluation of infant and young child feeding practices and children's temperament when they were between 6 and 12 months, and Time 2, assessment of children's eating behaviors at age 2. This study included sociodemographic characteristics, the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire for Toddlers (CEBQ-T), the short form of Children Behavior Questionnaire (Revised IBQ-RSF), and the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire (IFSQ) in eastern China. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was utilized to examine the pathways from three dimensions of early temperament to five types of children's eating behaviors mediated by three styles of infant and young child feeding practices. A total of 972 children, children's mean age was 14.58 ± 5.11 months, 464 (47.74%) being girls, while the mothers' mean age was 30.23 ± 3.56 years. Effortful control exhibited significant effects on food responsiveness and satiety responsiveness mediated by responsive feeding. Additionally, effortful control influenced enjoyment of food and satiety responsiveness mediated by restrictive feeding. Surgency had a significant effect on food responsiveness mediated by indulgent feeding. Negative affectivity impacted satiety responsiveness, enjoyment of food, and food responsiveness mediated by responsive feeding. This longitudinal study delineates the pathways from early temperament to eating behaviors mediated by infant and young child feeding practices among children aged 6–23 months. These findings highlight the need to prioritize intervention programs aimed at nurturing early temperament through appropriate infant and young child feeding practices to promote healthy eating behaviors for upper- and middle-income countries (UMICs) with similar contexts.

Influence of the consumatory behavior onto the risk of obesity and its complications in primary school children

Objective. To identify the relationship of eating behavior and clinical and metabolic status of 6–11-year-old children in order to develop effective methods for prevention and treatment of obesity and its complications. Materials and methods. 94 children aged 6 to 11 participated in the research. They formed 2 groups: group I (n = 64) – obese children (standard deviation score (SDS) of body mass index (BMI) ≥ +2.0), group II (n = 30) – children with normal body weight (SDS BMI –1.0 … +1.0). Clinical and laboratory parameters were studied and eating behavior was assessed using the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Results. As a result of the study, it was determined that average values of triglycerides (TG), uric acid (UA), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), fasting glycemia (FG), p = 0.001, p = 0.002, p 0.001, p 0.001 were higher in obese children. The following features of the eating behavior in obese children have been revealed: a more active reaction to food and emotional overeating, p = 0.016, p = 0.004 Statistically significant direct moderate correlations between SDS BMI and the level of TG, UA, TSH and FG under the influence of eating behavior according to the “eating approach” type were established. Conclusions. An association between the pattern of eating behavior in obese children aged 6–11 and their clinical and metabolic status, which determines the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases in the future was revealed. The results obtained are a justification for identifying the nature of children`s eating behavior in order to prevent the development of obesity and associated complications, as well as to increase the effectiveness of therapy.

Nutrient intake and food selectivity in children with Tourette syndrome

ABSTRACT Objectives: Children with Tourette syndrome (TS) have been shown to exhibit high levels of food selectivity; however, its association with nutritional status has yet to be explored. The current study explored macro and micronutrient intake and food selectivity among children with and without TS, using 24-hour dietary recall and the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. Method: Parents of 43 children diagnosed with TS and 38 age-matched children without a clinical diagnosis completed an online 24-hour food diary. Results: Fifty-eight per cent of children with TS were identified as falling outside of the healthy BMI range (underweight = 24.2%; overweight = 27.3%; obese = 6.1%). Children with TS also consumed fewer portions of fruit and vegetables along with meeting the daily reference nutrient intake guidelines significantly less often for vitamins B3, B6 and C, selenium and phosphorus compared to children without TS. Conclusions: Understanding the nutritional risk of children with TS relative to other children is important to clinicians and health care professionals who oversee nutritional inspection in primary care, and caregivers who are worried about the impact of limited or restricted diets.

Associations of pre- and postnatal per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance exposure with adolescents' eating behaviors.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), persistent environmental chemicals, may act as obesogens by interacting with neuroendocrine pathways regulating energy homeostasis and satiety signals influencing adolescent eating behaviors. In 211 HOME Study adolescents (Cincinnati, OH; recruited 2003-2006), we measured PFAS concentrations in serum collected during pregnancy, at delivery, and at ages 3, 8, and 12 years. Caregivers completed the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) at age 12, and we calculated food approach and food avoidance scores. Using quantile-based g-computation, we estimated covariate-adjusted associations between a mixture of four gestational PFAS and CEBQ scores. We identified high (n = 76, 36%) and low (n = 135, 64%) longitudinal PFAS mixture exposure profiles between delivery and age 12 years using latent profile analysis and related these to CEBQ scores. We examined whether child sex or physical activity modified these associations. We observed no association of gestational PFAS mixture with food approach or food avoidance scores. Children in the higher longitudinal PFAS mixture profile had slightly higher food approach scores (β: 0.47, 95% CI: -0.27, 1.23) and similar food avoidance scores (β: -0.15, 95% CI: -0.75, 0.46) compared with children in the lower profile. We found some evidence that higher physical activity favorably modified the association between longitudinal PFAS mixture profiles and emotional overeating (interaction P value = 0.13). Child sex did not consistently modify any associations. Serum PFAS concentrations were not consistently linked to adolescent eating behaviors in this study, suggesting alternative pathways, such as metabolic rate, may underlie previously observed associations between PFAS exposure and childhood obesity.

Effect of fast-food environments on children's eating behaviour: A random effect within between analysis within the Generation R Study.

Focussing on appetitive traits associated with obesity, this study aimed to estimate the association between the fast-food environment and satiety responsiveness, enjoyment of food and food responsiveness. We used data from the Generation R Study. We included 2008 children with repeated measurements at the age of 4-10 years old. Three eating behaviour subscales from the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) were used as outcomes. Geographical Information System data were used to map individual-level exposure to fast-food outlets within 400 m from home. Random Effect Within Between (REWB) models were used to derive estimates. We tested for moderation of the associations with parental restriction at baseline using the parent-reported Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ). We did not find evidence of between-associations of fast-food exposure and eating behaviour subscales. Considering within-associations, an increase in absolute fast-food exposure was associated with a significant marginal increase in satiety responsiveness (β: 0.02 [95% confidence interval: 0.00-0.03]). No moderation by parental restriction was found. In environments with ubiquitous fast-food outlets, an increased exposure to fast-food outlets does not seem to have a substantial impact on eating behaviour. Further research is needed to better understand how fast-food exposure contributes to overweight.

Nature and nurture in fussy eating from toddlerhood to early adolescence: findings from the Gemini twin cohort

BackgroundFood fussiness (FF) describes the tendency to eat a small range of foods, due to pickiness and/or reluctance to try new foods. A common behaviour during childhood, and a considerable cause of caregiver concern; its causes are poorly understood. This is the first twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to the developmental trajectory of FF from toddlerhood to early adolescence, and stability and change over time.MethodsParticipants were from Gemini, a population‐based British cohort of n = 4,804 twins born in 2007. Parents reported on FF using the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire ‘FF’ scale when children were 16 months (n = 3,854), 3 (n = 2,666), 5 (n = 2,098), 7 (n = 703), and 13 years old (n = 970). A mixed linear model examined the trajectory of FF, and a correlated factors twin model quantified genetic and environmental contributions to variation in and covariation between trajectory parameters. A longitudinal Cholesky twin model examined genetic and environmental influences on FF at each discrete age.ResultsWe modelled a single FF trajectory for all children, which was characterised by increases from 16 months to 7 years, followed by a slight decline from 7 to 13 years. All trajectory parameters were under strong genetic influence (&gt;70%) that was largely shared, indicated by high genetic correlations. Discrete age analyses showed that genetic influence on FF increased significantly after toddlerhood (16 months: 60%, 95% CI: 53%–67%; 3 years: 83%; 81%–86%), with continuing genetic influence as indicated by significant genetic overlap across every age. Shared environmental influences were only significant during toddlerhood. Unique environmental influences explained 15%–26% of the variance over time, with some enduring influence from 5 years onwards.ConclusionsIndividual differences in FF were largely explained by genetic factors at all ages. Fussy eating also shows a significant proportion of environmental influence, especially in toddlerhood, and may, therefore, benefit from early interventions throughout childhood. Future work needs to refine the FF trajectory and explore specific trajectory classes.

Protective Eating Behaviors Among Children at Higher Risk for Obesity in the INSIGHT Study.

Background: Maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) is positively associated with offspring overweight. We investigated behaviors that may confer resilience to childhood overweight development by examining appetitive traits in at-risk children born to mothers with pre-pregnancy overweight. Methods: This secondary analysis included children born to mothers with pre-pregnancy BMI ≥25 kg/m2 from the Intervention Nurses Start Infants Growing on Health Trajectories Study (N = 84). Mothers completed the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) at child ages 30 months and 6 years. t-tests assessed differences in appetitive traits (CEBQ subscale scores) between children with overweight (BMI ≥85th percentile) and without overweight (BMI <85th percentile). Results: The 87 children (41 female [47%]) included in this analysis were predominantly White and non-Hispanic (93%), and 34 (39%) had overweight at age 6 years. Compared with children with overweight, children without overweight had mothers who reported greater child slowness in eating when their child was 30 months (p = 0.04) and 6 years old (p = 0.004). Similarly, mothers of children without overweight reported higher child satiety responsiveness, lower enjoyment of food, and lower food responsiveness (p < 0.001 for all) when their child was 6 years old. Conclusion: Eating slower, higher satiety responsiveness, lower enjoyment of food, and lower food responsiveness were protective factors against developing overweight among those with familial risk. Strategies to promote the development of slower eating and satiety responsiveness could be explored as part of obesity prevention strategies.

Factorial validation of the children’s eating behavior questionnaire and the association between the eating behaviors assessed and BMI Z score in Chinese preschoolers aged 2–5 years

ObjectiveThis study aimed to evaluate the validity and reliability of the Children’s Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) among Chinese preschool children aged 2–5 years. Additionally, we investigated the associations between eating behaviors assessed by the CEBQ and body mass index (BMI).MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of Chinese preschool children aged 2 to 5 years (n = 11,780). The CEBQ was employed to assess participants’ eating behaviors, and factor analysis of the CEBQ was conducted; sex and age differences in eating behaviors were examined. Correlations between children’s BMI z scores and eating behaviors were analyzed via linear regression analysis controlling for age; sex; ethnicity; maternal age, education level, ethnicity and BMI; paternal age, education level, ethnicity and BMI.ResultsThe factor analysis confirmed the eight-factor structure of the CEBQ, which explained 67.57% of the total variance. Two items were excluded owing to low factor loadings. The subscales showed satisfactory internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha range: 0.76–0.90). Significant sex and age differences were observed for several CEBQ subscales, and BMI z scores were found to be associated with various eating behavior subscales.ConclusionsThis study’s findings support the validity and reliability of the CEBQ for assessing eating behaviors among Chinese preschool children, and children’s eating behaviors might be affected by age and sex. Furthermore, BMI was found to be associated with specific eating behaviors. Understanding these associations can inform interventions that promote healthy eating habits in this population.

Variations of Eating Behaviors Among Vietnamese Preschool Children and Their Association With Children's Anthropometric Z-Scores: Results From Analyses of the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire in 10 000 Children.

Eating behaviors, which are shaped during childhood, are one of the important factors influencing children's growth. This study aimed to investigate the variations in eating behaviors among Vietnamese preschool children aged 3 to 6 years using the Children Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) and their association with anthropometric Z-scores. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 10 172 children from 36 to 72 months old, recruited from three different socioeconomic regions of Hanoi. Differentiation of eating behaviors between two sexes was observed across all age groups, but most obvious at 36 to 48 months of age. The subscales of emotional overeating (EOE), enjoyment of food (EF), and desire to drink (DD) were higher in 60- to 72-month age groups and vice versa for slowness in eating (SE) and emotional undereating (EUE) subscales. Analyses using the general linear model showed that CEBQ subscales were associated with anthropometric Z-scores in both girls and boys.

Maternal perceived stress, household disorder, eating behaviors and adiposity of women and their children

BackgroundStress is associated with physiological and behavioral adaptations that increase the risk for obesity and related diseases in adults and children. Mechanisms linking stress to chronic disease are diverse and not fully elucidated, but research suggests stress may impact eating behaviors and increase food intake and thereby, risk for obesity. ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to test the hypotheses that women's perceived stress and household disorder are associated with more uncontrolled and emotional eating among women, more food responsiveness and emotional overeating among their children, and greater adiposity in both women and their children. MethodsWomen (n = 86) completed the Perceived Stress Scale, Confusion, Hubbub and Order Scale, Three Factor Eating Questionnaire, and Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Total body fat (%) was measured via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Linear regression models evaluated associations of perceived stress and household disorder with eating behaviors and adiposity of women and their children (4–10 years old). ResultsIn a sample of predominantly non-Hispanic Black women (84.9%, n = 73), more perceived stress and household disorder were associated with more uncontrolled and emotional eating (p < 0.05). Women's perceived stress was not associated with their children's eating behaviors; however, household disorder was positively associated with children's food responsiveness and emotional overeating (p < 0.05). Perceived stress and household disorder were not associated with adiposity of women or their children. ConclusionsThese findings suggest household disorder may be a factor for home-based interventions to consider when addressing eating behaviors among families with children.

Relationship of nutritional behaviors and parent–child interactions with developmental domains of Iranian toddlers: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundHealth service providers closely monitor the developmental state of toddlers to identify the factors affecting this process because any defect during this period will cause irreversible damage. Therefore, this study investigated the relationship of nutritional behaviors and parent–child interactions with the developmental domains of Iranian toddlers.MethodsThis cross-sectional, descriptive-analytical study was conducted on 341 toddlers aged 12–36 months covered by comprehensive health centers in the south of Tehran in 2021–2022. The participants were selected through single-stage cluster sampling. To this end, 16 comprehensive health centers were randomly selected, and then some of the clients from each center were randomly selected as the sample. The required data were collected through the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ), the Children’s Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ), the Child-Parent Relationship Scale (CPRS), and a demographics form. They were then analyzed statistically using descriptive and inferential statistics in SPSS-21, considering a significance level of p < 0.05.ResultsThe results showed that most participants were normal in all developmental domains (communication, gross motor, fine motor, personal-social, and problem-solving), with a mean developmental delay ranging from 1.8 to 7%. The most serious problem of participants requiring medical referral was related to gross motor (7%) with a mean of 54.35 ± 7.28 followed by communication (6.5%) with a mean of 49.41 ± 9.67. The mean nutritional behavior of participants was 77.9 ± 21.7. A significant relationship was found between the nutritional behaviors of participants and the problem-solving domain of development (p = 0.018). The results also indicated a mean parent-child interaction score of 94.26 ± 12.63. There was a significant relationship between parent-child interactions and the communication area of development (p = 0.04).ConclusionSince some areas of toddler development are influenced by children’s nutritional behavior and parent-child interactions, it is necessary to train families to identify, monitor, and correct the factors affecting the development of their children. Health system officials and planners are also recommended to develop interventions to improve the nutritional behaviors of children and parent-child interactions.

Effects of New Complementary Feeding Guidelines on Eating Behaviour, Food Consumption and Growth in Colombian Children: 6-Year Follow-Up of a Randomised Controlled Trial.

Complementary feeding (CF) may influence later eating behaviour and growth. Our previous Randomised Control Trial (RCT) reported that new CF guidelines (NCFGs) implemented in 6-12-month-old infants in Bogota, Colombia, had positive short-term effects on red meat, vegetable and fruit consumption. Here, we assessed the effects of the NCFGs on food consumption, eating behaviour and growth at 6 years of age. Weight and height were measured using 50 children (58.8%) from the cohort. Feeding behaviour was measured using the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) and maternal and child food consumption was measured using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. The control group (CG) had a significantly higher weekly consumption of chocolate milk drinks (p = 0.05). The mean food responsiveness (FR) score was significantly higher in the CG (p < 0.001). Although HAZ (height for age Z-score) at 6 years of age was significantly higher in the CG (p < 0.02), there was no significant difference between groups in the change in HAZ from 6 months and 12 months to 6 years of age. BMIZ (body mass index Z-score) and % overweight (CG 18.5% versus NCFG 13%) or obese (3.7% versus 0%) were not significantly different between groups. BMIZ was positively predicted by FR (β 0.293; p = 0.014) and negatively predicted by weekly red meat consumption episodes per week at 12 months (β -0.169; p = 0.020). Although there was no direct effect of an intervention on BMIZ at 6 years of age, the results were consistent with an indirect effect via intervention effects on meat consumption at an age of 12 months and FR at 6 years of age. However, further longitudinal studies with a larger sample size are needed.

Parent's use of coercive control practices with food is associated with poorer emotion regulation and increased emotional overeating in preschoolers

Emotional overeating is defined as eating in response to emotions. Around the preschool years, there is a shift from emotional undereating to overeating, which suggests environmental influences in the development of overeating. The use of food by parents to control their child's emotions, rather than to teach them appropriate emotion regulation strategies, may impact the child's ability to regulate their own emotions, resulting in emotional overeating. We hypothesized that such coercive control practices with food by parents would be associated with poorer ability of the child to regulate their own emotions, which in turn would lead to increased emotional overeating, but not emotional undereating. Mothers of four- and five-year-olds (N = 221) were recruited through MTurk and Prolific to complete online questionnaires measuring food parenting practices (Comprehensive Feeding Style Questionnaire and Parent Feeding Style Questionnaire), child emotion regulation (Emotion Regulation Checklist), and child emotional eating (Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire). Several mediation models were tested. Parent's use of food to control emotions and behavior was associated with higher levels of emotional overeating, which was mediated by poorer child emotion regulation. However, child emotion regulation did not mediate the association between parent's use of food to control emotions and behavior and the child's emotional undereating. Taken together, these models suggest that parent's use of coercive control with food may lead to child emotional overeating, but not emotional undereating, by teaching children to regulate their emotions through eating rather than more adaptive regulation strategies. Future experimental and longitudinal studies are needed to directly test the nature and direction of these associations and whether coercive control with food teaches children to overeat in response to their emotions in lieu of using appropriate emotion regulation strategies.

Different Eating Habits Are Observed in Overweight and Obese Children Than in Normal-Weight Peers.

Obesity is diagnosed in 13.6% of early primary school children in Poland. Its presence at this age increases the risk of obesity occurrence in adulthood. Therefore, it is important to properly shape eating behaviors at the stage of childhood and identify incorrect eating styles. This study aimed to investigate whether overweight and obese children differ significantly from children with normal body weights in terms of their eating styles. For the materials and methods, 43 mothers of overweight or obese children aged 3-10 years and 88 mothers of normal-weight children aged 3-10 years completed a questionnaire related to sociodemographic factors and the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. The overweight and obese children, compared with normal-weight children, scored higher on the food responsiveness (p = 0.009) and emotional overeating (p = 0.013) scales and lower on the satiety responsiveness (p = 0.025) and slowness in eating scales (p < 0.0001). No significant difference was found for other subscales between the studied groups. In the group of overweight and obese children, the child's age correlated negatively with enjoyment of food, as did the mother's BMI with slowness in eating. The results indicate the presence of significant differences in eating styles between normal-weight children and overweight or obese children. Identifying families at high risk of inappropriate eating behaviors and educating them appropriately can reduce the risk of children becoming overweight or obese.