Children's Active School Travel Research Articles

Emotional perceptions and barriers to Children's active school travel in low and high socio-economic neighbourhoods in Iran

IntroductionWalking to schools has declined with the rise of automobility, particularly in developing countries, due to fast urbanization. Conversely, Active School Travel (AST) benefits children’s physical health and contributes to their emotional health. PurposeThis cross-sectional study has developed a new model for analyzing children's AST behavior with environmental, household, and child factors, as well as exploring the relationships between children's AST and emotional perception among children residing in low and high socio-economic neighbourhoods in Bandar Abbas, Iran. MethodsOut of 1421 questionnaires distributed among school students (grades 1 to 6) and their parents, 1001 questionnaires qualified to be used for further analysis. Smart-PLS and SPSS were used to analyse the data. ResultsTraveling by private car (34.5%) and carpool (26.2%) respectively were the most common mode of commuting to school. Safety problems, traffic issues, and distance, respectively, were the most common barriers reported by parents for AST. Higher perceived crime and traffic safety by parents was associated with a higher level of AST. Meanwhile, parent’s perceived barriers to active commuting to schools decreased the chance of AST for children. Parents who reported having higher collective efficacy in their neighbourhoods positively affected the level of their child’s AST. Model results suggest that using AST modes positively correlates with children's positive emotional perceptions. ConclusionAST should be incorporated into school plans as a viable health promotion strategy. In addition, attempts to increase AST among children should emphasize improving safety and distance perceptions to adjust children's habits and tendency towards being driven to school every day.

Estimating children's Active School Travel behaviour using the ROute Observation for Travelling to School (ROOTS) instrument

IntroductionActive School Travel (AST) programs, such as Safe Routes to School (SR2S), have been predominantly evaluated using self-reported methods that are susceptible to bias (e.g., social desirability). Objective methods, such as observational route counts, are underutilised in AST program evaluations, and existing studies have not assessed instrument inter-rater reliability. This study aimed to strengthen the evidence base supporting the use of objective measurements to estimate school children's AST behaviour by adapting an existing observational route counting instrument to align with the route-level aims of SR2S programs and assessing its inter-rater reliability. MethodsThe ROute Observation for Travelling to School (ROOTS) instrument was adapted from Crawford and Gerrard's Ride2School instrument. Reliability data were collected across four days from three purposively selected public primary schools (one school per day with one school repeated due to rain). Four pairs of trained observers were assigned to different routes at observation points approximately 100–200m away from the same school on the same day. Without conferring, the observational pairs recorded all active travel behaviour (i.e., children walking, cycling, scootering, skating to school), for four 15-minute intervals between 8:15am and 9:15am. Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC) were computed to assess the inter-rater reliability of each observational pair. ResultsThe total number of observations made by the four observational pairs was 353.0 (M = 88.3, SD = 27.1). ICCs for observational pairs ranged between 0.841 (95% CI: 0.758, 0.897) and 1.000, reflecting good to excellent inter-rater reliability. ConclusionThe ROOTS instrument had good to excellent inter-rater reliability, which supports the use of observational route counts to provide AST evaluations with an objective, reliable alternative to self-reported methods. The ROOTS instrument may be particularly useful for researchers and practitioners evaluating route-level AST behaviour in SR2S programs to tailor these programs to the route-level needs of children and parents.

The power of the neighborhood: Perceived normative behaviors moderate individual predictors of walking and biking to school

IntroductionParent attitudes and perceptions of convenience are primary determinants of children's mode of school travel. Parents may favor the use of active transportation to school, such as walking or biking, if supportive neighborhood normative behaviors are present. MethodsA series of logistic regressions with marginal effects were conducted to investigate whether seeing others, talking or waving, seeing kids walk alone, or seeing kids walk with adults along the way to school modified the impact of parent attitudes and reported ease of driving a car on active school travel among parents of children in grades K-6 (N = 390) in Phoenix, AZ (USA). ResultsThe likelihood of using active transportation to school was positively associated with favorable parent attitudes, and the odds of using active travel modes differed less than 10% with the presence of neighborhood normative behaviors and low or high attitudes. As reported ease of driving increased, the likelihood of using active transportation to school decreased. The presence of neighborhood norms did not change the negative trajectory, but differences existed when ease of driving was low compared to high. The probability of using active transportation to school when ease of driving was low compared to high was greater when participants saw others (29.3%to, 32.8%from), talked/waved to others (11.0%to, 0%from), saw kids walking alone (28.6%to, 35.7%from), and saw kids walking with adults (27.8%to, 51.5%from). ConclusionsEchoing prior work, parent attitudes and perceptions of convenience of driving remain influential determinants of children's active school travel behavior. This study provides preliminary evidence on the influences of psychosocial support within the neighborhood to promote active transportation to school. The impact of supportive normative behaviors during the school journey should be considered in active transportation to school interventions, particularly in conjunction with efforts to change parent perceptions of ease of driving.

Children's Active School Travel: Examining the Combined Perceived and Objective Built-Environment Factors from Space Syntax.

Increasing active school travel (AST) among children may provide the required level of daily physical activity and reduce the prevalence of obesity. Despite efforts to promote this mode, recent evidence shows that AST rates continue to decrease in suburban and urban areas alike. The aim of this research study, therefore, is to facilitate our understanding of how objective and perceived factors near the home influence children’s AST in an understudied city, İstanbul, Turkey. Using data from a cross-sectional sample of students aged 12–14 from 20 elementary schools (n = 1802) and consenting parents (n = 843), we applied a nominal logistic regression model to highlight important predictors of AST. The findings showed that street network connectivity (as measured by two novel space syntax measures, metric reach and directional reach) was the main deciding factor for active commuting to school, while parents’ perceptions of condition of sidewalks and shade-casting street trees were moderately significant factors associated with AST. Overall, this study demonstrated the significance of spatial structure of street network around the homes in the potential for encouraging AST, and more importantly, the need to consider objective and perceived environmental attributes when strategizing means to increase this mode choice and reduce ill-health among children.

Impact of changing road infrastructure on children's active travel: A multi-methods study from Auckland, New Zealand

IntroductionBuilt environment infrastructure that supports active travel may help increase rates of children's active travel to school. Knowledge gaps exist in terms of how small-to-medium scale, school-focused infrastructural changes might impact children's active school travel and associated variables along the pathway to behaviour change. The aim was to work with a regional transport agency to evaluate the impact of infrastructural changes in a school neighbourhood. MethodsChildren in school years 5–8 and their parents/caregivers from two schools involved in a school travel intervention were invited to participate. The study area was identified in partnership with Auckland Transport (responsible for delivering all intervention elements). Children completed a geographic informations systems survey that captured behaviours and neighbourhood perceptions. Parents completed a telephone interview to measure neighbourhood perceptions and reasons for school travel mode. Tube counters and video cameras were used to measure traffic speeds and volume, and counts of pedestrians and cyclists, respectively. Baseline measures were taken in 2015 (traffic data) and from May-July 2016 (all other measures), infrastructural works were delivered from November 2016 to May 2017, and follow-up measures were repeated in May-June 2018. ResultsAt baseline, 123 children and 88 parents participated. At follow-up, 152 children and 91 parents participated. Reductions in traffic speeds but increases in traffic volumes were observed post the intervention. Positive and negative shifts in child and parent neighbourhood perspectives were observed. Distance to school, convenience, and traffic saftey concerns were raised as key factors of importance by parents and children. Overall, rates of car use for the school trip increased, while video observation showed an increase in pedestrians. ConclusionsReversing declines in active travel may require more intensive, community-wide interventions that substantially improve neighbourhood safety and perceptions of safety. Longer term follow-up may be necessary to understand the true effect of the intervention.

Assessment of direct and indirect associations between children active school travel and environmental, household and child factors using structural equation modelling

BackgroundActive school travel (AST) is influenced by multiple factors including built and social environments, households and individual variables. A holistic theory such as Mitra’s Behavioural Model of School Transportation (BMST) is vital to comprehensively understand these complex interrelationships. This study aimed to assess direct and indirect associations between children’s AST and environmental, household and child factors based on the BMST using structural equation modelling (SEM).MethodsData were drawn from Neighbourhoods for Active Kids (NfAK), a cross-sectional study of 1102 children aged 8–13 years (school years 5–8) and their parents from nine intermediate and 10 primary schools in Auckland, New Zealand between February 2015 and December 2016. Data were collected using an online participatory mapping survey (softGIS) with children, a computer-assisted telephone interviewing survey (CATI) with parents, and ArcGIS for built environment attributes. Based on the BMST a conceptual model of children’s school travel behaviour was specified for SEM analyses (‘hypothesised SEM’), and model modification was made to improve the model (‘modified SEM’). SEM analyses using Mplus were performed to test the hypothesised/modified SEM and to assess direct and indirect relationships among variables.ResultsThe overall fit of the modified SEM was acceptable (N = 542; Root mean square error of approximation = 0.04, Comparative fit index = 0.94, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.92). AST was positively associated with child independent mobility, child-perceived neighbourhood safety, and parent-perceived importance of social interaction and neighbourhood social environment. Distance to school, and parental perceptions of convenience and concerns about traffic safety were negatively associated with AST. Parental fears of stranger danger were indirectly related to AST through those of traffic safety. Distance to school and child independent mobility mediated relationships between AST and child school year and sex.ConclusionsIncreasing children’s AST requires action on multiple fronts including communities that support independent mobility by providing child friendly social and built environments, safety from traffic, and policies that promote local schools and safe vehicle-free zones around school.

Children's perspectives on neighbourhood barriers and enablers to active school travel: A participatory mapping study

AbstractChildren today are spending more sedentary time indoors than time playing and being active outdoors. The daily journey to and from school represents a valuable opportunity for children to be physically active through active school travel. The majority of research on children's active school travel omits children from the research process even though children interpret their environments in fundamentally different ways than adults. Our research uses innovative participatory mapping and qualitative GIS methods to examine how children's perceptions of their environments influence their school journey experiences. Through our thematic analysis of 25 map‐based focus groups, we identified three main themes characterizing barriers and enablers to active school travel: safety‐related, material, and affective features. By positioning children as experts of their environments in our participatory methodology, our findings provide an important counterpoint to the adultist privilege characterizing the majority of research on children's active school travel. Environmental features that mattered for children's school journeys took on multiple meanings in their eyes, demonstrating that children's perspectives must be engaged to inform interventions to promote active school travel. We thus argue that identifying barriers and enablers to active school travel for children requires engaging children's views.

Does parental support influence children's active school travel?

Today's ‘backseat generation’ of children is more often driven to school. Active school travel (AST) can contribute up to 30% of recommended daily physical activity. Although governed by a complex set of factors, parents are considered ‘gatekeepers’ of children's travel mode decisions. Therefore, we investigate the relationship between parental support and children's AST.Data were from Active Streets, Active People-Junior (British Columbia, Canada). Children self-reported travel mode to/from school for 1 week (10 trips). We assessed parental perceived neighborhood traffic and crime safety (Neighborhood Environmental Walkability Scale-Youth) and frequency of parental support for AST (0–5 ×/week). We investigated the association between daily AST behaviour and parental support using logistic regression (controlling for age, sex, distance to school and perceived neighborhood safety).In our sample (n = 179, 11.0 ± 1.0 years, 59% girls), 57% reported daily AST and 63% of parents provided daily support. Bivariate analyses showed AST behaviour was significantly associated with parental support frequency and parents' perceived safety. In adjusted analysis, daily parental support remained significantly associated with daily AST (OR 9.0, 95% CI 4.2, 19.7).The relationship between parental support and AST was independent of noted correlates of AST. Thus, interventions that focus solely on changes to the built environment may not be enough to encourage AST. Therefore, interventions that aim to increase AST should involve parents and children in the planning process.

Walking time to school, children's active school travel and their related factors

Abstract Active school travel is one of the main opportunities for promotion of physical activity among children. Low physical activity in this group is associated with potential health risks. This research has three aims including two main aims and one intermediate aim. The two main aims were to identify variables that explain why the perceived walking time to school (PWTS) is below or above a threshold and to examine the role of PWTS as well as socioeconomic status, household factors, parental attitudes towards walking and walking safety on active school travel among children. The intermediate aim was to identify a threshold for the PWTS. This threshold may provide information about how to plan transport and roads around schools. Data were gathered in Rasht, Iran in 2014. The 1078 questionnaires were distributed among pupils aged 7–9 years in nine schools. The children were instructed to bring the forms to their parents who completed them (n=735, return rate=80%). To predict active school travel (0=inactive modes, 1=active modes), and PWTS (0=long, 1=short) two binary logistic regression analyses were carried out. Results showed that a 10 minutes PWTS was the threshold where the proportion of active mode use (walking) starts to decrease compared to the best performing alternative mode. Higher parental age (OR=1.02) and household income (OR=1.27), accessibility to public transport (OR=0.42), attending public school (OR=0.36), access to school service (OR=0.45) and contextual and design preconditions for walking (OR=0.81) were associated with PWTS to eligible schools. PWTS (OR=15.24) was a strong negative predictor of active school travel. Mother's driving license (OR=0.49), more owned cars (OR=0.53), higher mother's educational degree (OR=0.74), accessibility to public transport (OR=0.26), and access to school service (OR=0.22) were related to active school travel. This research found that PWTS is the most important barrier for children's active travelling while adjusting for a wide-range of demographics, socio-economic variables as well as safety and attitude factors in Iran.

Natural and built environmental exposures on children's active school travel: A Dutch global positioning system-based cross-sectional study

Physical inactivity among children is on the rise. Active transport to school (ATS), namely walking and cycling there, adds to children's activity level. Little is known about how exposures along actual routes influence children's transport behavior. This study examined how natural and built environments influence mode choice among Dutch children aged 6–11 years. 623 school trips were tracked with global positioning system. Natural and built environmental exposures were determined by means of a geographic information system and their associations with children's active/passive mode choice were analyzed using mixed models. The actual commuted distance is inversely associated with ATS when only personal, traffic safety, and weather features are considered. When the model is adjusted for urban environments, the results are reversed and distance is no longer significant, whereas well-connected streets and cycling lanes are positively associated with ATS. Neither green space nor weather is significant. As distance is not apparent as a constraining travel determinant when moving through urban landscapes, planning authorities should support children's ATS by providing well-designed cities.