Children Who Stutter Research Articles

Exploring the Activation of Target Words in Picture Naming in Children Who Stutter: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials.

Target word activation in picture naming was explored in children who stutter (CWS) and typically fluent children (TFC) using event-related potentials (ERPs). A total of 18 CWS and 16 TFC completed a task combining picture naming and probe word identification. On each trial, a picture-to-be-named was followed by an auditory probe word-to-be-identified; the probe was identical (Identity condition) or Unrelated to the picture name. ERPs were recorded from probe onset. Attenuation of the N400 ERP component was predicted to Identity versus Unrelated trials (N400 priming). Between-groups differences in amplitude, timing, and topography of N400 priming were explored. Naming was more accurate on Identity versus Unrelated trials. Probe word identification accuracy was not affected by Condition. N400 priming was detected, indicating that self-generated picture names facilitated semantic processing of identical probes. This effect was larger in amplitude in CWS versus TFC. Unexpectedly, an N400-preceding, frontally maximal, positive-going ERP component-associated with expectancy processing-was larger in amplitude to Unrelated versus Identity trials. This effect was smaller in CWS versus TFC. A larger N400 priming effect in CWS versus TFC reflects a tendency toward more extensive semantic processing in picture naming in CWS. A smaller Condition effect on frontally maximal, positive-going, N400-preceding ERP activity in CWS versus TFC indicates a reduced ability to form expectancies about the lexical and/or phonological identity of probe words in CWS. Both effects may point to inefficient activation of target words in picture naming in CWS.

Speech Disfluencies in Bilingual Lebanese Children Who Do and Do Not Stutter.

Prior studies have shown that bilingual children who do not stutter (CWNS) exhibit a high number of disfluencies in both languages, increasing the risk of misidentification by speech-language pathologists as children who stutter (CWS). Conversely, there is a risk of misidentifying CWS with a relatively low incidence of disfluencies as CWNS. This study aims to explore the qualitative and quantitative distinctions in speech disfluency profiles between CWNS and CWS. The assessment covers both the dominant and nondominant language to examine the impact of language dominance on disfluency patterns. A total of 92 Lebanese bilinguals (70 CWNS and 22 CWS) from 4;06 to 7;06 (years;months) were included. Language dominance was determined based on parental assessments. Spontaneous and narrative speech samples were collected for each child in both languages and all stuttering-like disfluencies (SLD) and other disfluencies (OD) were coded. On average, CWNS showed a significantly lower percentage of total SLD, weighted SLD, SLD subtypes, and iterations compared to CWS. However, the number of disfluencies of CWNS exceeded monolingual clinical standards. Language dominance did not impact SLD and OD percentages, but some differences for SLD subtypes emerged. Binary logistic regression analyses showed that repetitions and dysrhythmic phonations are good predictors for correct CWS or CWNS classification, in contrast to OD. A combination of predictors from both languages led to better classification than using predictors from either language alone. The current study shows that speech disfluency percentages in bilingual CWNS typically surpass monolingual standards and can be at par with those of CWS. However, through careful consideration of disfluency characteristics, ideally in both languages, an accurate differential diagnosis of stuttering in bilingual children can be achieved.

Mental state verb use in play by preschool-age children who stutter and their mothers

IntroductionPreschool-age children use mental state verbs (MSVs; e.g., think, know) to reference thoughts and other cognitive states. In play-based language, MSV use requires conversational flexibility, as speakers shift from discussion of actions happening in the here-and-now to more abstract discussion of mental states. Some evidence suggests that children who stutter (CWS) demonstrate subtle differences in shifting on experimental tasks of cognitive flexibility, differences which may extend to conversational flexibility. This study explored MSV use in conversational language between CWS and their mothers. MethodsThirty-five preschool-age CWS and 35 age- and gender-matched children who do not stutter (CWNS), all performing within the typical range on standardized language testing, conversed with their mothers during play. Samples were transcribed and coded for MSV use. ResultsNo between-group differences were observed in MSV use, either between the CWS and CWNS or between the groups of mothers. Age and language skills were positively associated with MSV use in the CWNS group only. For both groups of dyads, mothers’ MSV use corresponded at least to some extent to their children’s language skills. Finally, correspondence between CWNS and their mothers was observed for two conversational language measures, representing lexical diversity and morphosyntax; this overall pattern was not observed in the CWS dyad group. ConclusionsAlthough these findings point to similar use of MSVs among the groups of children and their mothers, for the CWS group, the patterns of use in relation to age and language skills are somewhat different from developmental expectations.

Inhibitory Control, Cognitive Flexibility, and the Production of Disfluencies in Children Who Do and Do Not Stutter.

Differences in inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility between children who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS) have been previously demonstrated. The aim of the current study was to investigate whether the previously reported inhibitory control- and cognitive flexibility-related performance costs for CWS are associated with the number of speech disfluencies that they produce. Participants were 19 CWS (Mage = 7.58 years, range: 6.08-9.17) and 19 CWNS matched on age and gender (Mage = 7.58 years, range: 6.08-9.33). Gamma regression models were used to investigate possible associations between performance costs in speed and accuracy measured during a computer task evaluating inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility and the number of speech disfluencies during video-recorded speech samples (story retelling and casual conversation). Two significant interactions were observed. For both inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, we identified a significant group and inhibitory control/cognitive flexibility performance-cost interaction in stuttering-like disfluencies (SLDs), indicating that the performance-cost effects on SLD production were significantly higher in the CWS group, compared to the CWNS group. CWS with reduced inhibitory control or cognitive flexibility produce more SLDs, but not other disfluencies. These results are partly in line with some previous findings in nonstuttering and stuttering populations linking inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility weaknesses to the production of speech disfluencies.

Risk of sleep problems in a clinical sample of children who stutter

PurposePrevious studies have shown increased prevalence of sleep problems among people who stutter. However, there is a lack of knowledge about what these sleep problems may specifically be. MethodFifty children who stutter (CWS) from 6;0 to 12;9 years of age and 50 age- and gender-matched controls participated in this study. Parents did not report coexisting conditions, excepting stuttering and/or sleep problems. Sleep problems were investigated using a standardized questionnaire answered by parents. The questionnaire shows cut-off scores to identify the risk of sleep problems as a whole and on each one of the six subscales (i.e., disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep; sleep breathing disorders; disorders of arousal; sleep-wake transition disorders; disorders of excessive somnolence; and sleep hyperhidrosis). Scores above the cut-off are suggestive of sleep problems. ResultsTwenty-one CWS scored higher than the cut-off on the sleep questionnaire compared to only two controls (p < 0.00001). Specifically, CWS scored higher than controls in disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep, sleep-wake transition disorders (especially jerking, sleep talking, and bruxism), and disorders of excessive somnolence (p < 0.0083, corrected for multiple comparisons). DiscussionCompared to controls, CWS are at greater risk for sleep problems, which are not consequences of coexisting disorders. Present findings confirm and expand current knowledge about sleep problems in CWS. Directionality possibilities and clinical implications are discussed.

Brain response to errors in children who stutter

PurposeHeightened rates of social anxiety have been reported in adults who stutter (AWS), but it is unclear whether anxiety is heightened also in children who stutter (CWS). Objective neurophysiological responses such as the error-related negativity (ERN) have been associated with anxiety, and ERN was reported to be increased in AWS. In this study, we examined whether ERN and error positivity (Pe) are increased in CWS. We further characterized ERN associations with age and anxiety in CWS relative to children who do not stutter (CWNS). MethodsEEG data were recorded from twenty-four CWS and twenty-four matched CWNS aged 3–9 years as they performed a Go/No-Go task. Parent-reported anxiety, and child-reported speech-associated attitude measures were collected. Linear regression models tested the effects of age, group, and their interaction, and the effects of anxiety, group, and their interaction on ERN and Pe. ResultsContrary to expectations, no ERN or Pe difference were observed between CWS and CWNS. However, larger ERN amplitudes were associated with older age in CWS but not CWNS, suggesting altered development of the error monitoring system in CWS. Association of Pe with anxiety also differed between groups: smaller Pe amplitudes were associated with higher level of parent-reported child anxiety in CWNS but not in CWS. Neither anxiety nor self-reported communication attitude differed between groups. ConclusionsBrain responses to errors were overall comparable between CWS and CWNS. However, CWS differed in how error monitoring responses varied with age and with anxiety levels. More research is warranted to examine how these factors contribute to persistent stuttering.

Phonological and Morphological Factors of Indonesian Children's Stuttering

The aim of this research is to examine whether there is an influence of children who stutter (CWS) on linguistic factors (phonology and morphology) in Indonesian. This research is a case study research with quantitative methods. The method used was: five CWS were directed to spontaneously speak Indonesian with a stuttering examination validated by a speech expert. Transcribe recordings and mark stutters. Next, words included in the stuttering category were analyzed for their phonological and morphological characteristics. The results showed that words starting with a phoneme and a consonant in the initial position of the word had a higher level of stuttering. Word length, word class, and inflection at the end of the word did not have a significant effect on the level of CWS stuttering. Stuttering can occur in many languages and the linguistic structure of speakers varies.

Delay frustration in children who do and do not stutter: A preliminary study

PurposeFrustration is an emotion often clinically reported by persons who stutter. So far, mainly questionnaire-based studies have reported findings related to increased frustration or decreased frustration tolerance. The aim of this preliminary study was to determine possible group differences between children who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS) using a behavioral experimental task, as well as to evaluate possible associations with the frequency, duration, and physical concomitants of stuttering disfluencies. MethodParticipants were 13 CWS (mean age = 6;05 years) and 13 CWNS (mean age = 6;06 years), matched on age (±4 months) and gender. Frustration tolerance was assessed by the Delay Frustration task. This task includes normal delay, short delay, and long delay trials. Responses during long delay trials provide an indication of frustration tolerance and were recorded across time intervals during the response window. ResultsCWS, compared to CWNS, responded more frequently during the long delay trials, which is indicative of higher delay frustration. The variation in responding across time within intervals was similar for both groups. Decreased frustration tolerance was associated with increased duration of stuttered disfluencies and of physical concomitants. ConclusionsIn general, the current findings seem to provide support for earlier theoretical conceptualizations about the role of emotional reactivity in the development of stuttering.

Comparison of Participation in Online Games and Communication Experiences of School-Age Children Who Do and Do Not Stutter: Exploratory Study

Introduction: Online games provide a socializing environment for children aged 8–10 years, but there is a lack of information in the literature about whether children who stutter (CWS) access online gaming environments as frequently as their nonaffected peers and about their interaction habits. This study aimed to investigate the participation frequency of school-age CWS and children who do not stutter (CWNS) in online games, the speech characteristics during games, and whether they encountered bullying-like behaviors during games. Methods: A total of 91 CWS (F/M = 18/73; age range = 8–13) and 116 CWNS (F/M = 60/56; age range 8–13) participated in this study. Children’s participation habits in online, chat-based, multiplayer games were evaluated with web-based questionnaires. Differences between questionnaire responses were analyzed using the significance test for a difference in two proportions. Results: There was no significant difference between the participation rates of CWS and CWNS in online games (z = 1.46; p = 0.14), their frequency (p > 0.05), and the time they spent in the game (p > 0.05). It was found that those who stutter preferred to use one-word expressions more than their peers who do not stutter (z = 2.03; p = 0.04), and those who stutter had higher rates of not encountering bullying-like behaviors in online games than those who do not stutter (z = 2.2; p = 0.03). Discussion/Conclusion: CWS and CWNS show similar participation habits in online, chat-based, multiplayer games with similar frequency and duration. Speech features that emerge in online games and whether these games play a role in providing CWS with a communication environment where the risk of bullying is reduced and fluency is increased may be the subject of future research.

Identifi cation of objective indicators of respiratory disorders in primary schoolchildren who stutter

The article presents the results of studying the respiratory function and speech breathing in primary school age children who stutter (CWS) using psychological, pedagogical and instrumental methods to obtain an objective picture of the state of physiological and speech breathing in this category of children. The examination was aimed at studying physiological, phonation, and speech breathing. Electrophysiological examination of the respiratory function included: determination of the type of breathing; registration of vital capacity of the lungs (VC), forced expiratory duration (FVC), forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) using pneumography, spirometry and peak flowmetry. The study results of physiological breathing of CWS showed in half of the children a decrease in the vital volume of air in the lungs, the presence of a mixed type of breathing, in some of them – respiratory rhythm insufficiency. The study results of the maximum phonation time showed that the duration of the phonation exhalation did not correspond to the norm in more than half of the children. A disorder of the formation of speech breathing was revealed. The results of the studied indicators by age and gender are presented. The obtained data are objective evidence of disorders of physiological, phonation, and speech breathing in primary schoolchildren who stutter which requires targeted corrective work to develop the function of breathing and speech breathing in these children.

Perceptions and experiences of Australian speech-language pathologists who use the Lidcombe Program with children who stutter

Purpose: Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) have varying levels of training and experience working with children who stutter (CWS). They often work in contexts and populations that require clinical management to take them beyond the borders of translating clinical trial protocols and evidence-based practice (EBP). This study sought to investigate the clinical experiences of Australian SLPs working with CWS, including their Lidcombe Program confidence and practices. Method: A cross-sectional online survey was completed by 215 Australian SLPs during 2017–2020. They were recruited prior to attending one of 14 workshops hosted by Speech Pathology Australia (SPA). Result: Participants worked in a range of contexts and were from all states and territories. The majority assessed and/or treated up to five CWS annually. Six predictor variables were considered for self-reported clinical confidence. The quantitative analysis identified that an SLP’s previous training, reading the SPA stuttering management clinical guideline, and the annual number of CWS treated were found to significantly impact self-reported clinical confidence. Themes included: (1) client, family, service, and context factors that influence clinical decision-making; (2) SLP areas of clinical strength and aspects of paediatric stuttering management requiring further development; and (3) factors that impact Lidcombe Program success and modifications. Conclusion: This study has found that Australian SLPs working with CWS identify a range of important factors that impact their practice.

Language sample analysis of conversation samples from school-age children who stutter: The role of syntactic factors in stuttering

IntroductionThe purpose of the study was to compare school-age children who stutter (CWS) and age-matched children who do not stutter (CWNS) in syntactic abilities and syntactic performance. MethodsComputerized Language Sample Analysis (LSA) was conducted on the conversation samples obtained from 46 school-age CWS and CWNS between 7 and 16 years (CWS, n = 23). Syntactic abilities were assessed using the Index of Productive Syntax (the IPsyn) and Developmental Sentence Scores (DSS) and mixed effects logistic regression analyses with participants as random effects were conducted to determine if the scores were predictive of group membership. Additionally, the groups were compared in the IPsyn subcategories to assess the use of syntactic structures. Syntactic performance was assessed by: (a) Categorizing the sentences from each conversation sample into high vs. low syntactic complexity categories based on DSS scores and comparing the sentence categories in % stuttered sentences (% SS); and (b) Comparing the groups in the proportion of phrase-level disfluencies (phrase repetitions vs. revisions) that are associated with syntactic planning. ResultsIn terms of syntactic abilities, the IPsyn scores interacted with the number of utterances (sample size) used to compute the scores in predicting group membership. In comparison to the CWNS, the CWS obtained higher scores in the IPsyn and the sentence structure subcategory of the IPsyn that were independent of sample size. In terms of syntactic performance: (a) Significantly more sentences were stuttered in the high compared to the low syntactic sentence category; (b) Compared to the CWNS who demonstrated significantly more phrase revisions, the CWS showed comparable and fewer phrase revisions and repetitions. Additionally, post-hoc analysis showed that the CWS used significantly elaborated noun phrases and a similar trend was evident for verb phrase elaborations. A significant association between verb phrase elaborations and%SS was also obtained. ConclusionsFindings from the IPsyn and the use of elaborate noun phrases, and to some extent verb phrases, suggested that the CWS used more complex syntax even in shorter conversational samples. More stuttered sentences in the high DSS sentence category, the use of fewer phrase revisions, and the association between stuttering and elaborated verb phrases in the CWS are interpreted to suggest the effects of syntactic planning and reformulation demands on fluency during ongoing articulation.

Decontextualized Utterances Contain More Typical and Stuttering-Like Disfluencies in Preschoolers Who Do and Do Not Stutter.

Stuttering-like disfluencies (SLDs) and typical disfluencies (TDs) are both more likely to occur as utterance length increases. However, longer and shorter utterances differ by more than the number of morphemes: They may also serve different communicative functions or describe different ideas. Decontextualized language, or language that describes events and concepts outside of the "here and now," is associated with longer utterances. Prior work has shown that language samples taken in decontextualized contexts contain more disfluencies, but averaging across an entire language sample creates a confound between utterance length and decontextualization as contributors to stuttering. We coded individual utterances from naturalistic play samples to test the hypothesis that decontextualized language leads to increased disfluencies above and beyond the effects of utterance length. We used archival transcripts of language samples from 15 preschool children who stutter (CWS) and 15 age- and sex-matched children who do not stutter (CWNS). Utterances were coded as either contextualized or decontextualized, and we used mixed-effects logistic regression to investigate the impact of utterance length and decontextualization on SLDs and TDs. CWS were more likely to stutter when producing decontextualized utterances, even when controlling for utterance length. An interaction between decontextualization and utterance length indicated that the effect of decontextualization was greatest for shorter utterances. TDs increased in decontextualized utterances when controlling for utterance length for both CWS and CWNS. The effect of decontextualization on TDs did not differ statistically between the two groups. The increased working memory demands associated with decontextualized language contribute to increased language planning effort. This leads to increased TD in CWS and CWNS. Under a multifactorial dynamic model of stuttering, the increased language demands may also contribute to increased stuttering in CWS due to instabilities in their speech motor systems.

Effects of task variations on language productivity, syntactic complexity, and stuttering in children who stutter

ABSTRACT Purpose. The aim of this preliminary study was to compare the effects of variations in task demands on: (a) language productivity in sentences categorised into stuttered vs. non-stuttered sentences; (b) syntactic complexity in stuttered vs. non-stuttered sentence categories, and (c) stuttering and typical disfluencies in school-age children who stutter (CWS). Language Sample Analysis (LSA) was conducted on samples from three tasks – Conversation, fable retell, and critical thinking based on the fables. Methods. Participants were 14 CWS categorised into younger (9 to 12-year-olds, n = 8) and older age groups (13 to 15-year-olds, n = 6). The Computerized Language ANalysis program was used to conduct language and disfluency analyses. Repeated measures analysis of variance and nonparametric statistical analyses were used to investigate: (a) Language productivity in total number of words and sentences by task and sentence category; (b) Syntactic complexity at the word- (use of metacognitive verbs), phrase- (use of verb phrases), and utterance (Mean Length of Utterances in words, MLUw) levels by task and sentence category; and (c) Disfluencies measured using % stuttered syllables (%SS) and % typical disfluencies (%TD). Results and Conclusions. Task effects in language productivity did not differ by sentence category and suggested limited influences of propositionality and volubility in stuttering. In contrast, higher syntactic complexity was obtained in the stuttered compared to non-stuttered sentences at the word, phrase, and utterance levels and it was the same task – conversation, that elicited the effect. Additionally, variations in task demands did not result in significant differences in %SS. The findings inform assessment planning with the selection of tasks guided by task demands and assessment requirements.

Exploring the Relationship Between Resilience and the Adverse Impact of Stuttering in Children.

People who stutter often experience significant adverse impact related to stuttering. However, it is unclear how adverse impact develops in children who stutter (CWS) and whether there are protective factors that may mitigate its development. This study examined the relationship between resilience, a potentially protective factor, and stuttering's adverse impact in CWS. Resilience comprises external factors, such as family support and access to resources as well as personal attributes, making it a comprehensive protective factor to explore. One hundred forty-eight CWS aged 5-18 years completed the age-appropriate version of the Child and Youth Resilience Measure (CYRM) and the Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering. Parents completed a caregiver version of the CYRM and a behavioral checklist for their child. The adverse impact of stuttering was modeled as a function of resilience (external, personal, and total), controlling for child age and behavioral checklist score. We also estimated correlations between child-report and parent-report CYRM measures to assess rater agreement. Children reporting greater external, personal, or total resilience were more likely to experience lower degrees of adverse impact related to their stuttering. We documented stronger correlations between younger child and parent ratings of resilience and weaker correlations between older child and parent ratings. These results yield valuable insight into the variability of adverse impact experienced by CWS and offer empirical support for strength-based speech therapy approaches. We discuss the factors that contribute to a child's resilience and provide practical suggestions for how clinicians can incorporate resilience-building strategies into intervention for children experiencing significant adverse impact from their stuttering. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.23582172.

Stalling for Time: Stall, Revision, and Stuttering-Like Disfluencies Reflect Language Factors in the Speech of Young Children.

Disfluencies can be classified as stuttering-like disfluencies (SLDs) or typical disfluencies (TDs). Dividing TDs further, stalls (fillers and repetitions) are thought to be prospective, occurring due to planning glitches, and revisions (word and phrase revisions, word fragments) are thought to be retrospective, occurring when a speaker corrects language produced in error. In the first study assessing stalls, revisions, and SLDs in matched groups of children who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS), we hypothesized that SLDs and stalls would increase with utterance length and grammaticality but not with a child's expressive language level. We expected revisions to be associated with a child having more advanced language but not with utterance length or grammaticality. We hypothesized that SLDs and stalls (thought to be planning-related) would tend to precede grammatical errors. We analyzed 15,782 utterances from 32 preschool-age CWS and 32 matched CWNS to assess these predictions. Stalls and revisions increased in ungrammatical and longer utterances and with the child's language level. SLDs increased in ungrammatical and longer utterances, but not with overall language level. SLDs and stalls tended to occur before grammatical errors. Results suggest that both stalls and revisions are more likely to occur in utterances that are harder to plan (those that are ungrammatical and/or longer) and that, as children's language develops, so do the skills they need to produce both stalls and revisions. We discuss clinical implications of the finding that ungrammatical utterances are more likely to be stuttered.

A preliminary investigation of the mental health of parents of young children who stutter

IntroductionWhile research has shown that parents of preschool-aged children who stutter (CWS) may be negatively affected by their child's stuttering, few studies have investigated their mental health. If parents of CWS have poor mental health, this may impact stuttering treatment choices, the conduct of treatment, stuttering treatment outcomes, and the development of stuttering treatments. Methods82 parents (74 mothers and 8 fathers) of preschool-aged children who stutter (aged 1–5) were recruited upon application for an assessment for their child. A survey battery extracting quantitative and qualitative information about symptoms of potential depression, anxiety, stress, and psychological distress, as well as the emotional effect of stuttering on parents was administered and the results summarized. ResultsData from standardised measures revealed similar incidence as normative data for the presence of stress, anxiety or depression (1 in 6 parents) and distress (almost 1 in 5 parents). However, more than half of the participants reported experiencing a negative emotional effect due to their child's stuttering and a large proportion also reported that stuttering influenced their communication with their child. ConclusionsSpeech-language pathologists (SLPs) should broaden the scope of their duty of care to include the parents of CWS more fully. Parents should be provided with informational counselling or other support services that will help reduce worry and anxiety related to negative emotions.

Brain developmental trajectories associated with childhood stuttering persistence and recovery

Stuttering is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 5–8 % of preschool-age children, continuing into adulthood in 1 % of the population. The neural mechanisms underlying persistence and recovery from stuttering remain unclear and little information exists on neurodevelopmental anomalies in children who stutter (CWS) during preschool age, when stuttering symptoms typically first emerge. Here we present findings from the largest longitudinal study of childhood stuttering to date, comparing children with persistent stuttering (pCWS) and those who later recovered from stuttering (rCWS) with age-matched fluent peers, to examine the developmental trajectories of both gray matter volume (GMV) and white matter volume (WMV) using voxel-based morphometry. A total of 470 MRI scans were analyzed from 95 CWS (72 pCWS and 23 rCWS) and 95 fluent peers between 3 and 12 years of age. We examined overall group and group by age interactions in GMV and WMV in preschool age (3–5 years old) and school age (6–12 years old) CWS and controls, controlling for sex, IQ, intracranial volume, and socioeconomic status. The results provide broad support for a possible basal ganglia-thalamocortical (BGTC) network deficit starting in the earliest phases of the disorder and point to normalization or compensation of earlier occurring structural changes associated with stuttering recovery.

Exogenous verbal response inhibition in adults who do and do not stutter

IntroductionBehavioral and questionnaire-based studies suggest that children who stutter (CWS) exhibit poorer response inhibition than children who do not stutter (CWNS). However, the behavioral findings in adults who stutter (AWS) are less unequivocal and mainly based on manual response inhibition. Further study is therefore needed, especially given the lack of studies on verbal response inhibition among these groups. MethodsThirteen AWS and 14 adults who do not stutter (AWNS) participated in a verbal stop signal task (SST) in which they were asked to read aloud six Chinese characters as fast as possible during the go-signal and ignore-signal trials and refrain from naming them during the stop-signal trials. ResultsThe two groups showed a comparable response reaction time in the go-signal and ignore-signal trial conditions. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in terms of the stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) and accuracy. However, a significant positive correlation was found between SSRT and the frequency of stuttering in conversation but not in reading. ConclusionCurrent findings seem to provide additional support that exogenously triggered response inhibition among AWS does not differ from AWNS. The association between stuttering frequency and SSRT seems to suggest that individuals with more severe stuttering in conversational speech have reduced exogenous response inhibition. However, this finding needs to be further explored in future studies using different measures of stuttering severity.

Validation of the Vanderbilt Responses to Your Child's Speech Rating Scale for Parents of Young Children Who Stutter.

This study reports the development, refinement, and exploration of the psychometric properties of the Vanderbilt Responses to Your Child's Speech (VRYCS) rating scale, a novel measure designed to assess parents' self-perceived responses to the speech of their children who stutter (CWS). Parents of 214 young (ages 2;4[years;months]-5;11) CWS completed the original 40-item version of the VRYCS. Content analyses and an exploratory factor analysis determined the scale's factors and identified specific items corresponding to each. Items that did not load onto the factors were removed and internal consistency was assessed. The final 18-item VRYCS rating scale includes five factors relating to parents' responses to the speech of their CWS including (a) Requesting Change, (b) Speaking for the Child, (c) Supporting Communication, (d) Slowing and Simplifying, and (e) Responding Emotionally. Reliability was demonstrated, responses by parents of CWS were described, and a revised scoring form developed. The VRYCS is a valid and reliable tool for assessing and exploring parents' perceptions of their own responses to the speech of their CWS for clinical and research purposes. Clinical applications of the VRYCS for assessment and treatment of childhood stuttering are discussed.