Childbearing Behavior Research Articles

Relative Resources in Couples and Their Childbearing Behavior in the United States

A growing body of research indicates significant variation in the fertility-education relationship by partner education across high income countries. However, little is known on the education-fertility-couple nexus in the US context. The present study fills this gap. It investigates linkages between married couples’ relative socio-economic resources and their first and second birth transitions in the United States, using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and a competing risk approach to model birth transitions and union dissolutions competing with first and second births independently. The study presents four findings. First, homogamous tertiary educated couples have the highest first and second birth rate, net of fertility preferences, indicating the relevance of resource pooling for family formation. Second, low-resource hypogamous and hypergamous couples have lower birth rates than most other pairings, underscoring that linkages between heterogamy and family formation may vary by the absolute level of the partners’ resources. Third, family income mediates first birth rate differences between homogamous highly educated couples and most other pairings. Lower first birth rates of hypogamous large distance couples, compared with homogamous tertiary educated couples, however, appear in part rooted in higher union dissolution rates. Fourth and finally, the higher second birth rate of homogamous highly educated couples was not mediated by any of the tested socio-economic mechanisms. More research is needed to investigate the mechanisms underlying this birth rate pattern found throughout high income societies. * This article belongs to a special issue on “Changes in Educational Homogamy and Its Consequences”.

Teenage childbearing and the welfare state

Abstract Teenage childbearing is a common incident in developed countries. However, teenage births are much more likely in the USA than in any other industrialized country. Most of these births are delivered by female teenagers from low-income families. The hypothesis put forward here is that the welfare state (a set of redistributive institutions) has a significant influence on teenage childbearing behavior. We develop an economic theory of parental investments and the risky sexual behavior of teenagers. The model is estimated to fit stylized facts about income inequality, intergenerational mobility, and the sexual behavior of teenagers in the USA. The welfare state institutions are introduced via tax and public education expenditure functions derived from US data. In a quantitative experiment, we impose Norwegian taxes and education spending in the economic environment. The Norwegian welfare state institutions go a long way in explaining the differences in teenage birth rates between the USA and Norway.

Fertility Decline in Iceland, 2013-2022: Trends and Structures

Iceland is one of the Western countries that have experienced an unexpected fertility decrease in the 2010s. In this study, the aggregate Icelandic fertility decline is dissected to explore which fertility components are the main drivers behind the decline since 2010 in order to better understand whether the development is associated with compositional changes or linked to changes such as increased propensities of childlessness and decreased propensities to have another child. As such, it contributes empirical evidence to ongoing theorisation within current fertility debates. Official administrative register data are analysed by means of event-history analysis. Findings are presented as parity-specific birth risks and in the form of Kaplan-Meier estimates of synthetic period-based cohorts of women and men progressing to parity one over calendar years. In terms of results, we find that the fertility decline was concentrated around first births, and the decline can principally be attributed to women under the age of thirty. Propensities to remain childless have increased slightly since 2013, while there were no declines in the intensities to have a second and a third child. Hence, the development in Iceland appears to be driven by clear postponement of parenthood but not altered childbearing behaviour in terms of propensities to have a second and a third child. Results do not necessary contradict theories under the umbrella of the gender-relations framework, but they highlight the importance of exploring other factors impacting the transition to parenthood, such as perceived global and welfare uncertainties. Socioeconomic differentials in first-birth fertility and factors affecting postponement and ultimate childlessness should be explored further, as well as short-term developments in higher-order birth intensities during adverse circumstances, such as the 2008 economic crisis and the Covid-19 pandemic, during which periods the third-birth intensities increased.

Short-term fertility intentions and outcomes: similarities and differences between childless women and mothers

ABSTRACT Research frequently reveals the gap between women’s fertility intentions and childbearing behaviour. Moreover, while the fertility intentions of childless women and mothers with one child can be very similar, the extent to which those intentions are realised is frequently different. In search for the reasons for these discrepancies, we propose how Bayesian methods can be used to investigate both time-invariant and time-variant factors influencing fertility intentions and outcomes while considering parity at the same time. In this way, we aim to provide new insight into the intention – behaviour link. We provide evidence from Poland, a country in which childless women are more likely to realize their strong positive fertility intentions than mothers. Our results indicate that in the case of Polish women, some factors shape the fertility intentions of childless women and mothers similarly. However, we also show that, in the short term, the same factors affect women’s fertility intentions and childbearing in substantially different and even contradictory ways. We demonstrate that, inter alia, having a job stimulates the fertility intentions of childless women only. In contrast, it negatively influences the likelihood of giving birth for both childless women and mothers.

Marriage and childbearing in patients with epilepsy in Turkey.

For epilepsy, a common neurological disorder, brings psychosocial challenges like stigma, employment difficulties, and barriers to marriage and childbearing. Stigma often stems from misconceptions and societal beliefs, particularly in less developed regions like Turkey. However, research on the marital and childbearing experiences of epilepsy patients in such settings is limited. We aimed to research the marriage and childbearing behaviors of men and women with epilepsy. We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 215 adult epilepsy patients at Antalya Training and Research Hospital between 2019 and 2022. Patients were asked questions about marriage and having children on prepared questionnaires. The gender distribution of the 215 patients included in the study was revealed to be 62.3% (134) females and 37.7% (81) males. 71.6% of patients were married, and 12.7% had no children. 33.3% of these patients stated that they did not desire children because of the disease. A statistically significant correlation was observed between the duration of the disease and being unmarried. A significant correlation was observed between age at disease onset and number of children. Our study revealed the effects of individuals with epilepsy on marriage and childbearing, and as we know, it is the first study conducted in Turkey on childbearing attitudes in individuals with epilepsy. Despite medical and social developments, epilepsy is still one of the most stigmatized diseases, and the disease has considerable negative effects on marriage and fertility. Our study supported the findings of a small number of previous similar studies on this subject and additionally showed that the likelihood of having children decreased in patients using multiple ASM, and on the other hand, it showed that marriage positively affected patients in terms of social support.

Religion and Fertility: A Longitudinal Register Study Examining Differences by Sex, Parity, Partner's Religion, and Religious Conversion in Finland.

We use longitudinal data on religious affiliation in Finland to examine childbearing behavior. All analyses are based on detailed fertility information from the Finnish national register of each person's religious denomination for men and women born in 1956-1975. We identify higher fertility according to parity among members of the Evangelical Lutheran state church and other Protestant churches, and lower fertility among individuals with no religious affiliation. Most other religious groups-Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims, and adherents of Eastern religions-have intermediate levels of fertility. We also find that religious converts, that is, those observed with more than one religious denomination over their life course, typically are similar to the non-converts of the group they convert to, though with more distinct deviations from the Finnish population. Women show larger differences by religious affiliation than men. We find the largest differences across religions when we examine the proportion of childless men and women. Overall, differences between religious groups are rather modest, and childbearing patterns are quite similar. Our results provide, to our knowledge, the first examination of religion and fertility using national-level longitudinal data.

Export servitization of Chinese cities and individuals’ marriage and childbearing performance

Based on the data from CHIP and IPUMS, this paper examines the impact of export servitization of Chinese cities on individuals’ marriage and childbearing performance. The results show that the deepening of export servitization may lead to a decline in the odds of getting married and having babies, resulting in a decrease in marriage and fertility levels. The heterogeneity analysis finds that the negative effect of increased export servitization leading to a decrease in individuals’ marriage and childbearing behaviors is more pronounced for individuals in eastern and central cities with more prosperous economies and better development of service and education, as well as individuals with lower income and education, females, women aged 20–34 and men aged 22–36, the Han ethnicity, and individuals of rural hukou. Furthermore, we investigate the channels through which export servitization affects individuals’ marriage and childbearing performance, and the results confirm that export servitization promotes income growth and the improvement of economic conditions reduces the demand for marriage and children.

The effect of single-child couples' education based on the theory of planned behavior on their intention to have next child.

In today's society, for many reasons, families have tended toward selective single-child upbringing. Single-child couples' decisions about continuing to have children depend on their attitudes about the consequences of having the next child, perceived norms about it, and perception of control over childbearing behavior. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of determining the effect of single-child couples' education based on the theory of planned behavior on their intention to have next child. This study is a field trial that was conducted in 2022. Eight girls' and boys' primary schools in Golpayegan City, Isfahan Province, were randomly selected for sampling the intervention and control groups. Parents of 70 first-grade students who were single children were selected and placed in groups. 35 couples in the intervention group received education about parenting based on the constructs of the theory of planned behavior during 4-weekly sessions. The questionnaire for the evaluation of childbearing behavior intention was completed by the research samples before the intervention, immediately, and three months after the intervention. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), independent-samples t-test, and Mann-Whitney statistical tests. Demographic and fertility characteristics were homogeneous in the intervention and control groups. The results showed that the changes in the average score of the attitude toward childbearing (P = 0.004), abstract norms (P = 0.001), perceived behavioral control (P = 0.01), behavioral intention (P = 0.003), and the overall score for the evaluation of childbearing behavior intention (P = 0.001) were significant in the intervention group. Comparing the intervention and control groups, the abstract norms immediately after the intervention (P = 0.002) and three months after the intervention (P = 0.002), behavioral intention immediately after the intervention (P = 0.006) and three months after the intervention (P = 0.009), and the overall score of the questionnaire to evaluate the intention to have children immediately after the intervention (P = 0.004) and three months after the intervention (P = 0.008) had significant differences. However, the two groups did not have significant differences in the dimensions of attitude toward having children and perceived behavioral control, immediately and 3 months after the intervention. The results obtained from this study showed that parenting education based on the theory of planned behavior generally improved couples' intention to have children, abstract norms, and also the intention to have children later, but it had no effect on the attitude of couples toward having children and controlling their perceived behavior in having children. It seems that couples having only one child are rooted in environmental conditions, such as the economic and social status of society, rather than being under the control and desire of the couple. Therefore, other environmental conditions should also be taken into consideration in fertility promotion policies. Adaptation and implementation of theory of planned behavior (TPB)-based intervention by health policymakers and healthcare providers achieve a better understanding of childbearing.

Economic resources, childcare services, and son preference: a conjoint analysis of fertility potential in China

AbstractUsing a randomized experiment that we designed for the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey, this study conducts a conjoint analysis to explore the fertility potential among Chinese adults. We examine the separate impacts of different factors and their heterogeneity across social groups. The results suggest that fertility potential is context-dependent. In addition, greater economic resources and availability of childcare significantly increase fertility potential. However, preferences in terms of the care provider, family versus the market, vary by gender, educational level, and desired number of children. Notably, we also find that son preference no longer has a significant effect on fertility potential in China. In light of China’s current low fertility, our study suggests that childbearing behavior will become increasingly differentiated by socioeconomic status. Fertility-enhancing policies should focus on supplementing economic resources and improving access to childcare.

The links between environmental issues and childbearing behaviour: a review of literature

The links between environmental issues and childbearing behaviour: a review of literature

Natives’ and migrants’ employment uncertainty and childbearing during the great recession: a comparison between Italy and Sweden

ABSTRACT This study contributes to the empirical research on the fertility decline registered in Europe in the aftermath of the Great Recession adopting a comparative perspective. We explore childbearing behavior during the crisis across three dimensions of vulnerability: migration background (measured as: country of origin and length of stay in the destination country), labor market uncertainty, and country of residence. We compare childbearing behavior by parity among native and migrant women with different employment statuses in Sweden and Italy. Using the Swedish population registers and the Italian Labor Force Survey, we investigate the change in childbearing probabilities between the pre-crisis (2006–2009) and the years following the onset of the crisis (2010–2015). We find that the chances of motherhood in the aftermath of the Great Recession decreased substantially among recently arrived migrant women, but also among unemployed natives and women with unstable careers. The migration and labor market vulnerabilities, however, do not accumulate: unemployment and career instability negatively affect only native women’s probability of motherhood. Finally, the country comparison demonstrates that while the duration of stay and the weaker labor market attachment reduces the chances of motherhood in both contexts, the negative effect of unemployment is particularly strong in Italy.

Female Healthcare Providers' Experiences of Childbearing: A Content Analysis Based on the Social Capital Theory

Introduction: Social capital has potential effects on reproductive health and childbearing behaviors. However, there is limited information about its relationship with childbearing. Objective: This study aimed to explore female healthcare providers' experiences of childbearing based on the social capital theory. Materials and Methods: This qualitative study was conducted from July 2018 to February 2019 on 15 female healthcare workers in healthcare centers in Babol City, Iran. The participants were purposively recruited with maximum variation respecting their age, work experience, educational level, and occupation. The study data were collected through 15 semi-structured interviews and analyzed using directed qualitative content analysis. Results: The participants were female healthcare providers working in hospitals or healthcare centers of the University of Medical Science. Their mean±SD age and work experience were 35±8.25 and 10±7.5 years, respectively. The extracted codes during data analysis were grouped into three predetermined main categories, namely structural social capital (social learning and conformation to social norms), cognitive social capital (social beliefs and values with three subcategories, namely religious beliefs, gender preference, and social stigma), and relational social capital (support and trust). The most critical factors affecting participants' childbearing behaviors were trust in their support systems and conformation to social norms. Conclusion: The different dimensions of social capital can affect childbearing behaviors. Therefore, social capital should be considered when designing population and reproductive health policies.

Having babies in times of uncertainty: first results of the impact of COVID-19 on the number of babies born in Australia

Background There has been considerable speculation on whether the COVID-19 pandemic had an effect on childbearing behaviour. Based on the experience of other social and economic disruptions, many researchers suggested that births would decline, while others argued that there could be a positive effect.
 Aims This paper considers the uncertainties associated with the impacts of COVID-19, particularly the relationship between the timing of COVID-19 events and subsequent births.
 Data and methods Publicly available birth data from birth registers, perinatal databases, and public hospital data were compiled and analysed to document changes in numbers and patterns of recorded births during 2020 and 2021.
 Results Births declined in 2020 but then rebounded in 2021. Quarterly birth data from New South Wales and Western Australia suggest that the sharpest drop in conceptions occurred in the January-March 2020 quarter. This coincided with the period when the pandemic was first taking off and when uncertainty about the future was at its highest.
 Conclusions The uncertainty associated with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic had a noticeable impact on births in 2020. It also shows, where data is available, that this impact was relatively short-lived, and births rebounded in 2021. We note that data is still sparse for Victoria, a state which was substantially more affected by lockdowns.

Childbearing intention and childbearing behavior in low fertility society: evidence from Shanghai

Exploring the patterns of population change under low fertility is a historical mission for demographic research in the 21st century. Taking Shanghai as an example, this paper discusses the new patterns and characteristics of people’s childbearing intention and behavior under low fertility settings. The results show that Shanghai, as a typical society with ultra-low fertility, people’s childbearing intention and behavior demonstrate the characteristics such as “downward inconsistency” between childbearing intention and childbearing behavior, “convergence” of childbearing intention and childbearing behavior between different sub-groups, “inversion” in childbearing intention and childbearing behavior with education and income, and the “decoupling” between marriage and childbearing. The childbearing intention and behavior of low fertility society as seen in the case of Shanghai show the patterns as somehow different from what was observed in a high fertility society. It suggests that many of the childbearing patterns shown in the high-fertility era may not necessarily be applicable in low fertility settings, and urges more research to be carried out in this regard.

Childbearing among Polish migrant women and their descendants in Sweden: an origin-destination country approach

This paper examines the childbearing behaviour of Polish migrant women and their descendants in Sweden. Also considering stayers in the country of origin, we rely on a country-of-origin and country-of-destination approach in a careful examination regarding the relevance of three hypotheses on migrant fertility: the socialisation, selection, and adaptation hypotheses. We analyse the transitions to first and second births based on a piecewise exponential model, using Swedish register data and the Polish Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) first wave. The results support the socialisation hypothesis, as the Polish stayers and the first-generation Polish migrants have their first child at younger ages and are less likely to remain childless than the other groups but are also more likely to not proceed to a second child, unlike the Swedish natives and the second generation. We find partial support for the selection hypothesis. Descriptively, we observe signs of selection into migration based on education, cohort, and marital status. Additionally, our study shows that the impact of marriage varies between stayers and migrants, in the first-birth transition, suggesting selection into migration when it comes to unobserved characteristics as well. The adaptation hypothesis is also supported, as the fertility behaviour of the second generation more closely resembles that of the Swedish natives than that of the first generation and differs more from that of the Polish stayers in terms of both quantum and timing of the first and second births.

Cohort, Policy, and Process: The Implications for Migrant Fertility in West Germany

Although a growing literature explores the relationship between migration and fertility, far less scholarship has examined how migrant childbearing varies over time, including across migrant cohorts. I extend previous research by exploring migrant-cohort differences in fertility and the role of changing composition by education and type of family migration. Using 1984-2016 German Socio-Economic Panel data, I investigate the transition into first, second, and third birth among foreign-born women in West Germany. Results from an event-history analysis reveal that education and type of family migration-including marriage migration and family reunions-contribute to differences in first birth across migrant cohorts. Specifically, more rapid entry into first birth among recent migrants from Turkey stems from a greater representation of marriage migrants across arrival cohorts, while increasing education is associated with reduced first birth propensities among recent migrants from Southern Europe. I also find variation in the risk of higher parity transitions across migrant cohorts, particularly lower third birth risks among recent arrivals from Turkey, likely a result of changing exposures within origin and destination contexts. These findings suggest that as political and socioeconomic circumstances vary within origin and destination contexts, selection, adaptation, and socialization processes jointly shape childbearing behavior.

Explaining the pattern of childbearing behaviors in couples: Protocol for a focused ethnographic study.

BACKGROUND:One of the most basic life events is fertility or reproduction, which, although known as a social phenomenon, is a complex and multidimensional concept with economic, cultural, political, and religious significance. The present study aims to explain the pattern of childbearing behaviors in couples.MATERIALS AND METHODS:This study is a focused ethnographic qualitative research. Participants of this study will be 20–35 years old couples who, using purposeful sampling method, will be selected from comprehensive health centers, ultrasound centers, laboratories, premarital counseling centers, offices of obstetricians and midwives, universities, shopping centers, cinemas, parks, restaurants, and entertainment centers in Isfahan, Iran. Sampling will continue considering the strategy of maximum variation in terms of age, occupation, education, and economic status until data saturation is reached. Data will be collected through semi-structured and in-depth individual interviews, focus group discussions, observation, field notes, daily notes, and document analysis. Simultaneous with data collection, the data will be analyzed using the thematic analysis method based on Braun and Clarke's approach.CONCLUSION:This present study is expected to lead to a deep understanding and identification of the attitudes, beliefs, and values of couples with regard to childbearing. Moreover, by understanding the pattern of childbearing behaviors of couples, useful information will be provided to the policymakers and planners for effective planning in the field of healthy childbearing. The findings can also be used in reproductive health counseling for newly married couples and community-based interventions.

Union formation and childbearing among Chinese youth: Trends and socioeconomic differentials

Driven by economic development, ideational changes and family planning policies, the Chinese family has experienced significant change over the past several decades. Based on data from the 2018 wave of the China Family Panel Studies, this study analyzes China’s younger generations’ union formation and childbearing behaviors. The results show that although the average age of entry into a first marriage continues to rise, young people generally express a desire to enter into marriage and value the creation of a family. As premarital cohabitation became more prevalent, its determinants change from the “second demographic transition” model to the “pattern of disadvantage” model. The differences between cohabitors and non-cohabitors in premarital conception, premarital childbirth and divorce diminished in the recent cohorts. The findings suggest that the age of childbearing for Chinese women remains relatively early. The implementation of the “universal two-child policy” in 2015 has also encouraged younger women’s childbearing. Among those born in the 1980s, almost half have already given birth to a second child. The ideal number of children has declined across birth cohorts in China, especially for individuals with a higher educational level and urban hukou. In summary, changes in union formation and childbearing among Chinese youth imply that China will be facing a further rise in the first marriage age and a further decline in the fertility rate. However, voluntary singlehood will remain rare, and Chinese youth still value the importance of marriage and childbearing.

Marriage migration and women's entry into the German labour market

Objective: We analyse the employment patterns of childless first-generation migrants to Germany. In particular, we focus on the behaviour of female "marriage migrants". Marriage migrants are defined as individuals who married after their spouse had moved to Germany.
 Background: Demographic studies have illustrated that marriage migrants have particularly high childbirth rates upon arrival. There is, however, little empirical evidence on how the childbearing behaviour of migrant women is related to their employment behaviour.
 Method: We use event history techniques to study women's labour market entry after migration in relation to their childbearing behaviour. We draw on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP). The analytical sample is restricted to immigrant women who moved while childless to Germany between 1990 and 2016 (n=981).
 Results: Compared to other groups, marriage migrants have very low chances of entering the labour market. Only 32 per cent of the migrants in our sample had ever participated in the labour market in the five-year period after their arrival in Germany. A large share of the differences between these migrants and other migrants can be attributed to the socio-demographic composition of these women, and to their tendency to transition to parenthood soon after their arrival.
 Conclusion: We argue that the low employment rates of female marriage migrants must also be viewed in the context of Germany’s migration policies, which do not provide many routes for female third-country nationals to move to Germany. One of the few available channels is that of marriage migration. We conclude by discussing the social policy implications of these findings at a time when Germany is gradually becoming a dual-earner society.

Intention to have a second child, family support and actual fertility behavior in current China: An evolutionary perspective.

This study provides an evolutionary perspective to a classic topic in demography, that is, the discrepancy between reproductive intention and subsequent behavior, in the context of China's two-child policy. We conduct an event history analysis of longitudinal data from the 2015 and 2018 waves of the Xi'an Fertility Survey (sample size=321 followed one-child mothers) to test the hypotheses of how within-family support/conflict affects women's fertility behavior. Only 50% of positive intentions (i.e., intending to have a second child) led to another (live) birth within the 3-year interval; meanwhile, 15% of uncertain intentions and 5% of negative intentions resulted in a birth. Husband's and the firstborn's emotional support raised the hazard of second childbirth along maternal life course, which cannot be fully mediated by mother's fertility intention and thus, contributed to an intention-behavior gap. Husband's sibship size had dual effects on female childbearing behavior: A positive indirect effect mediated by fertility intention, but a negative direct effect presumably due to sibling competition for intergenerational support. Finally, after controlling for fertility intention, having a firstborn son was still associated significantly with a lower second-childbirth hazard, presumably due to son preference as well as concern over parental investment. Our study identifies a discrepancy between maternal fertility intention and realized childbearing, which was partly explained by (lack of) support from other (multiple) stakeholders in family reproduction.