Child-dog Interactions Research Articles

The benefits and risks of child-dog attachment and child-dog behaviours for child psychological well-being

Abstract The importance of secure human attachments in childhood for healthy psychological development is well-established, yet the well-being implications of child-dog symbiotic relationships are less understood. Children form strong emotional bonds with their pet dogs that meet the prerequisites for an attachment relationship. These bonds can be mutually reinforcing and beneficial and could indicate positive child well-being. However, not all child-dog relationships are positive and here we explore whether harmful and unsafe interactions are associated with poorer emotional and behavioural functioning. The aim of this study was to examine whether the type of child-dog behaviour (positive or negative) mediates the relationship between child-dog attachment and well-being indicators. Data from caregiver reports (N = 117) and child self-reports (N = 77) were collected through an online survey. The results revealed that positive child-dog interactions significantly mediated the relationship between high attachment scores and better child outcomes (higher scores for well-being, positive outlook, happiness, quality of life, higher social satisfaction, and lower loneliness), whereas the reverse was found for negative child-dog interactions, predicting lower attachment scores and worse child outcomes (negative outlook, increased loneliness and social dissatisfaction, lower quality of life). This study has identified important mechanisms through which pet dogs may pose both benefits and risks to children’s psychological well-being. These findings will aid the development and evaluation of interventions that promote positive and safe child-dog interactions and subsequent child and dog psychological health and welfare.

Preventing dog bites with L.O.V.E.

Children can be vulnerable to dog bites when they don't recognize aggressive cues, highlighting the importance of safe child-dog interactions. This article explains how anticipatory guidance with L.O.V.E. can be used to educate children and families about preventing dog bite injuries.

Child-Dog Attachment, Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology: The Mediating Role of Positive and Negative Behaviours.

Emerging evidence suggests that pet dogs can offer features of a secure attachment which has been associated with healthy psychological development across the lifespan. Limited research has investigated the underpinning mechanisms that may contribute to the benefits and risks of child–dog attachment during childhood. This study aimed to test the potential mediating role of caregiver-observed positive and negative child–dog behaviours, on the relationship between child-reported child–dog attachment, and caregiver-reported child psychopathology and emotion regulation. Data from 117 caregiver reports and 77 child self-reports were collected through an online survey in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Parallel mediation analyses indicated that child–dog attachment had a significant indirect effect on conduct problems through negative child–dog behaviours only. Child–dog attachment had a significant indirect effect on emotional symptoms, peer problems, prosocial behaviour, emotion regulation, and emotional lability/negativity through both positive and negative child–dog behaviours. Although this study found modest effect sizes, the findings suggest that the types of interactions that children engage in with their pet dogs may be important mechanisms through which pet attachment contributes to psychological development throughout childhood, and therefore further attention is warranted. Positive and safe child–dog interactions can be facilitated through education and intervention, which may have implications for promoting positive developmental outcomes.

How Parents Perceive the Potential Risk of a Child-Dog Interaction.

Dog attacks on children are a widespread problem, which can occur when parents fail to realise a potentially dangerous interaction between a dog and a child. The aim of the study was to evaluate the ability of parents to identify dangerous situations from several everyday child–dog interactions and to determine whether the participants connected these situations to a particular breed of dog. Five sets of photographs depicting potentially dangerous interactions from everyday situations between children and three dogs (one of each breed) were presented via an online survey to parents of children no more than 6 years old. Data from 207 respondents were analysed using proc GLIMMIX in SAS program, version 9.3. The probability of risk assessment varied according to dog breed (p < 0.001) as well as to the depicted situation (p < 0.001). Results indicated that Labrador Retriever was considered the least likely of the three dogs to be involved in a dangerous dog-child interaction (with 49% predicting a dangerous interaction), followed by Parson Russell Terrier (63.2%) and American Pit Bull Terrier (65%). Participants considered one particular dog-child interaction named ‘touching a bowl’ a dangerous interaction at a high rate (77.9%) when compared with the other presented situations, which were assessed as dangerous at rates of 48.4% to 56.5%. The breed of dog seems to be an influential factor when assessing a potentially dangerous outcome from a dog-child interaction. Contrary to our hypothesis, interactions involving the small dog (Russell Terrier) were rated more critically, similarly to those of the Pit Bull Terrier. These results suggest that even popular family dog breeds, such as Labrador Retrievers, should be treated with more caution.

Assessment of Detection of Potential Dog-Bite Risks in the Home Using a Real-Time Hazard Perception Test

ABSTRACT Dog bites are a serious public health concern internationally and children are often at particular risk of them. Because bites to children often occur during apparently benign interactions with a parent present, the need for dog-bite prevention approaches to address adults’ awareness of, and supervision of, child–dog interactions has been highlighted. The aim of this study was to evaluate a hazard perception test of potential dog-bite hazards within a home setting. Six hazards were incorporated in a 2-minute 41-second video, which was embedded into a web-based interface that enabled respondents to identify hazards by clicking the mouse button or tapping the screen of a tablet computer as the video played. The 268 volunteer respondents also completed a short questionnaire. These respondents were predominantly female and appeared more likely to have undertaken higher education and have greater experience with dogs than the general population. Almost one-third (31.8%) of respondents identified all six hazards, and a further quarter (24.5%) missed only one; a quarter (25.2%) identified 3 or fewer; and 43.8% identified 4 or fewer hazards. No one scored zero, and 5.5% and 6.9% identified 1 and 2 hazards, respectively. A range of factors was associated with the identification of specific hazards. Participants with professional or long-term experience with dogs and those with higher educational attainment were more likely to detect some hazards. Older respondents were less likely to identify several of the hazards, and those living with children were less likely to identify cuddling a dog as a hazard. We find that hazard perception testing could be a useful tool for the assessment of knowledge regarding dog-bite risk situations and potentially an educational tool for increasing knowledge and changing practices around dogs.

Description and Determinants of At-Risk Interactions for Human Health Between Children and Dogs in an Inuit Village

ABSTRACT While dogs can have a positive impact on physical and mental health, they also represent a public health risk in terms of bites and zoonotic diseases. In the specific context of Inuit villages, the role, care, and value of dogs are culturally different than in southern Canada. Furthermore, rabies is endemic to the region. Dogs are frequently kept outside, and the risk of bites and deadly attacks is higher than in southern Canada, particularly in children. Thus, reducing at-risk interactions between children and dogs through prevention programs requires a strong understanding of the unique dog–child relationship in this particular setting. This study used quantitative and qualitative research methods to examine the characteristics of interactions that put children at risk in Kuujjuaq, an Inuit village in Quebec, Canada. Data were collected using 40 observational walks, 34 semi-structured interviews, and 31 conversational interviews. Seven types of at-risk child–dog interactions were identified: showing affection to the dog, ignoring the dog, playing with the dog, running away from the dog, intervening during a dog fight, attacking the dog, and untying the dog. According to interviewees, the last four types of interaction put children’s health directly at risk. All interactions were directly observed, though rarely, except for the untying of dogs. The interview analysis identified several determinants for these at-risk interactions at the child, family, socio-situational, and macro levels. As some of these determinants are modifiable, these findings advocate for a multifaceted educational intervention that targets children, parents, dog owners, and the whole community, while respecting the particular context of Kuujjuaq. This study offers specific insights that could guide the development of a socio-culturally sensitive education program aimed at improving the relationship between children and dogs in Inuit villages and thereby reducing the incidence of dog bites.

Developing and Assessing the Validity of a Scale to Assess Pet Dog Quality of Life: Lincoln P-QoL.

There has been little investment in exploring the impact of the child-dog relationship on the dog. Since child-dog interactions can pose potentially serious threats to a dog's physical and psychological health, as well as the wider satisfaction of the owner with their dog, we describe the development and validation of an owner-completed pet dog quality of life scale (Lincoln P-QOL), to enable professionals and families to monitor dog well-being and employ suitable interventions as required. Four-hundred and two dog-owners (194 lived with a neuro-typically developing child; 208 lived with a child with a neuro-developmental disorder) responded to an online survey. Respondents recorded whether they had observed their dog displaying any of the 22 behavioral responses which have been identified as being common in 11 child-dog interactions. These behavioral responses appeared to group into three categories of behaviors (i.e., behavioral constructs), representing Excitability, Calmness, and Fearfulness in the dog. To assess convergent validity of the quality of life scale respondents completed additional measures including, dog body condition score, health issues (incorporating psychological factors such as anxiety and physical proxies of well-being, such as skin irritations) and dog-owner relationship satisfaction. Excitability and Fearfulness constructs were associated with a negative impact on dog health and the owner-dog relationship. Calmness was associated with a positive impact on the dog-owner relationship. A range of interactions, including carefully expressed child-dog physical affection and spending quiet time together appear to had a beneficial impact on dog quality of life, whereas rough contact, child meltdowns, and grooming/bathing had a negative effect. We found little evidence to support a difference in the overall quality of life of dogs living with neuro-typically developing children compared to those with a neuro-developmental disorder. However, parents and practitioners need to be aware of the potential increased risk to dog well-being when meltdowns, grooming/bathing, and quiet time involve a child with a neuro-developmental disorder. This is the first validated scale for the assessment of dog well-being around children, additionally, the behavioral constructs identified may form the rational basis of a more general dog behavior/stress assessment tool in social situations.

Caregiver Reports of Interactions between Children up to 6 Years and Their Family Dog-Implications for Dog Bite Prevention.

In children up to 6 years, interactions such as interfering with the dog’s resources and also benign behaviors (e.g., petting) commonly precede a bite incident with the family dog. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore the development of everyday interactions between children up to 6 years and their family dogs and whether parents’ attitudes to supervision are related to those interactions. Additionally, we investigated whether behavior of dogs that had lived in the family for longer than the child differed from those that grew up with children. A self-selected sample of caregivers living with a child up to 6 years and a family dog was surveyed via an online questionnaire (N = 402). Frequency of observed child behaviors directed toward the dog and dog behaviors directed toward the child were scored on a six-point scale (1—never and 6—very often). Data on characteristics of the caregiver, the child, and the dog were collected, and a section surveying attitudes to supervision of child–dog interactions was included. Additionally, we asked whether the dog already injured the child. Benign child behaviors toward dogs were most frequently reported (mean ± SD: 4.1 ± 1.2), increased with child age (rs = 0.38, p < 0.001), and reached high levels from 6 months on. Overall, resource-related interactions were relatively infrequent (2.1 ± 1.1). Most common was the dog allowing the child to take objects from its mouth (4.1 ± 1.7). This behavior was more common with older children (rs = 0.37, p < 0.001). Reported injuries during resource-related interactions occurred while feeding treats or taking objects from the dog during fetch play. Dogs that had lived in the family for longer than the child showed less affiliative behaviors toward the child (e.g., energetic affiliative: U = −7.171, p < 0.001) and more fear-related behaviors (U = −3.581, p < 0.001). Finally, the caregivers’ attitudes to supervision were related to all child behaviors (e.g., allow unsafe behaviors—benign child behavior: rs = 0.47, p < 0.001). The results of this study underline the need for a dog bite prevention approach directed toward the caregivers very early in the child–dog relationship, taking into account the child’s age and individual needs of the dog.

Animal Bite Injuries in Children: Review of Literature and Case Series.

IntroductionMaxillofacial region in children is particularly vulnerable to animal bite injuries. These injuries may range from insignificant scratches to life-threatening neck and facial injuries. Children are the common victims, particularly of dog bites.Materials and methodsThree cases of animal bite injuries in children with their clinical presentation and their management are being presented along with review of literature. Surgical management included cleansing and primary closure of the wound. Rabies and tetanus prophylaxis were given.DiscussionThe most common site of injury was the face. For the facial injuries, the most frequently affected area was the middle third (55%), also called as the “central target area.” The small stature of children, the disproportionate size of the head relative to the body, their willingness to bring their faces close to the animal, and limited motor skills to provide defense are believed to account for this. The resulting soft-tissue injuries can vary in relation to their extent. Treatment involved initial surgical exploration, and secondary repair later depending on the severity of the injury.ConclusionPrompt assessment and treatment can prevent most bite wound complications. Early management of such injuries usually guarantees satisfactory outcome. Prevention strategies include close supervision of child-dog interactions, better reporting of bites, etc.How to cite this articleAgrawal A, Kumar P, Singhal R, Singh V, Bhagol A. Animal Bite Injuries in Children: Review of Literature and Case Series. Int J Clin Pediatr Dent 2017;10(1):67-72.

Attitudes of caregivers to supervision of child–family dog interactions in children up to 6 years—An exploratory study

Abstract Dog bites suffered by young children are often inflicted by the family dog and preceded by an interaction. As poor supervision of child-dog interactions may be a key cause of these incidents, we set out to investigate dog owners' attitudes to supervision of everyday interactions of their children with the family dog and whether interactions with family dogs were judged differently than those with unfamiliar dogs. An online survey was conducted over a 4-month period. To take part, respondents had to live with a child (≤6 years) and to own a dog. The questionnaire contained sections about demographics (participant, child, dog), supervision and daily management of the child and dog, intervention in interactions, and awareness of risks of interactions (all scored on a scale from 1 to 6). Questions about intervention included 5 pictures of child-dog interactions which were chosen based on concordant expert ratings. Respondents' average level of tolerance of unsafe behaviors was in the middle of a scale from 1 to 6 (3.05, standard deviation [SD] 1.29), and their level of attentiveness they reported during supervision of child and dog was similar (mean 3.12, SD 1.47). Environmental control of interactions, in particular by giving the dog a resting place separated from the child, was reported on a low level (mean 2.83, SD 1.47). However, respondents rated the need for an intervention in child-dog interactions very differently than experts (U = −13.52, P

Coping strategies observed in dogs with impaired social functioning towards humans

Dog bites suffered by young children are often inflicted by the family dog and preceded by an interaction. As poor supervision of child-dog interactions may be a key cause of these incidents, we set out to investigate dog owners' attitudes to supervision of everyday interactions of their children with the family dog and whether interactions with family dogs were judged differently than those with unfamiliar dogs. An online survey was conducted over a 4-month period. To take part, respondents had to live with a child (≤6 years) and to own a dog. The questionnaire contained sections about demographics (participant, child, dog), supervision and daily management of the child and dog, intervention in interactions, and awareness of risks of interactions (all scored on a scale from 1 to 6). Questions about intervention included 5 pictures of child-dog interactions which were chosen based on concordant expert ratings. Respondents' average level of tolerance of unsafe behaviors was in the middle of a scale from 1 to 6 (3.05, standard deviation [SD] 1.29), and their level of attentiveness they reported during supervision of child and dog was similar (mean 3.12, SD 1.47). Environmental control of interactions, in particular by giving the dog a resting place separated from the child, was reported on a low level (mean 2.83, SD 1.47). However, respondents rated the need for an intervention in child-dog interactions very differently than experts (U = −13.52, P < 0.001): on average, participants agreed with experts on only 2 depicted situations involving the family dog and on 4 encounters with an unfamiliar dog. Overall, many dog owners need to improve their supervision of child-dog interactions. It is vital to educate caregivers about potentially unsafe behaviors and safety measures to use with the family dog.

A Multi-Site Study on Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs and Practice of Child-Dog Interactions in Rural China

This study examines demographic, cognitive and behavioral factors that predict pediatric dog-bite injury risk in rural China. A total of 1,537 children (grades 4–6) in rural regions of Anhui, Hebei and Zhejiang Provinces, China completed self-report questionnaires assessing beliefs about and behaviors with dogs. The results showed that almost 30% of children reported a history of dog bites. Children answered 56% of dog-safety knowledge items correctly. Regressions revealed both demographic and cognitive/behavioral factors predicted children’s risky interactions with dogs and dog-bite history. Boys behaved more riskily with dogs and were more frequently bitten. Older children reported greater risks with dogs and more bites. With demographics controlled, attitudes/beliefs of invulnerability, exposure frequency, and dog ownership predicted children’s self-reported risky practice with dogs. Attitudes/beliefs of invulnerability, dog exposure, and dog ownership predicted dog bites. In conclusion, both demographic and cognitive/behavioral factors influenced rural Chinese children’s dog-bite injury risk. Theory-based, empirically-supported intervention programs might reduce dog-bite injuries in rural China.

Use of Assistance and Therapy Dogs for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Critical Review of the Current Evidence

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by deficits in social reciprocity and communication, and by unusually restricted, repetitive behaviors. Intervention strategies based on the exploitation of the emotional aspects of human-dog relationships hold the potential to overcome the difficulty of subjects with ASD to relate and interact effectively with others, targeting core symptoms of this disorder. This review summarizes the results of six published studies on the effects of brief interactions with dogs and the effects of introducing dogs in families with a child diagnosed with ASD, with an emphasis on social behaviors and language use. Furthermore, the possible mechanisms responsible for the beneficial effects observed are discussed. Although the studies described here are encouraging, further research with better designs and using larger samples is needed to strengthen translation of such interventions to the clinic. In addition, potential applications of analyzing child-dog interactions are highlighted to screen for early signs of the disorder.

Dog Bite Risk: An Assessment of Child Temperament and Child-Dog Interactions

Annually approximately 400,000 American children receive treatment for dog bites. Young children are at greatest risk and are frequently bitten following behavior that provokes familiar dogs. This study investigated the effects of child temperament on children’s interaction with dogs. Eighty-eight children aged 3.5–6 years interacted with a live dog. Dog and child behaviors were assessed through observational coding. Four child temperament constructs—impulsivity, inhibitory control, approach and shyness—were assessed via the parent-report Children’s Behavioral Questionnaire. Less shy children took greater risks with the dog, even after controlling for child and dog characteristics. No other temperament traits were associated with risk-taking with the dog. Based on these results, children’s behavior with unfamiliar dogs may parallel behavior with other novel or uncertain situations. Implications for dog bite intervention programs include targeting at-risk children and merging child- and parent-oriented interventions with existing programs geared toward the physical environment and the dog.

Doing, Being and Becoming: The Sociality of Children with Autism in Activities with Therapy Dogs and Other People

This article examines theories of sociality against ethnographically informed understandings of the sociality of children affected by Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) interacting with therapy dogs and other people. I explore from an occupational science and occupational therapy perspective how theories of human sociality inform our understanding of the ways in which a child's social engagement is supported during child-dog interactions; and how analysis of the data might problematize some theoretical assumptions about sociality, specifically, the primacy of language and theory of mind, and the 'humans only' position.

A comparison of dog bite injuries in younger and older children treated in a pediatric emergency department.

Dog bites account for a significant number of traumatic injuries in the pediatric population that often require medical treatment. Although agent, host, and environmental characteristics of dog bites have been well documented, no attempt has been made to compare these characteristics by patient age group. The purpose of this study is to determine if differences exist in agent, host, and environmental characteristics among younger (< or =6 y) and older (>7 y) patients treated in a pediatric emergency department (ED) for dog bites. Findings from our study could be used to develop age-specific strategies for dog bite prevention. The epidemiologic triad of agent/host/environment formed the theoretical framework. The study setting was the ED at Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh. Patients were enrolled between 1999 and 2000 and were identified through a review of ED records (n = 386) of children sustaining dog bites. Records were abstracted with a researcher-designed and validated form for agent (eg, breed, number of biting dogs, owner, rabies status), host (eg, age, gender, number and location of bites, treatment), and environmental (eg, bite month and time, bite location, events leading to the bite, ZIP code) characteristics. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical tests. Children younger than 6 years constituted 52.8% (n = 204) of the sample. As compared with older children, a higher proportion of younger children were bitten by their family dog (chi2 = 27.64, P = 0.001) whose rabies shots were up to date (chi2 = 12.08, P = 0.034). A higher proportion of younger children were bitten on the face (chi2 = 49.54, P = 0.000) and were bitten in their own homes (chi2 = 16.075, P = 0.013). Young children frequently sustain dog bites from their family dog in their own homes. Injuries typically involve severe lacerations to the face. Prevention strategies for young children include close supervision of child-dog interactions.

Advances in the Study of the Relationship Between Children and Their Pet Dogs

AbstractWe report in this paper data from research carried out in two fields: 1. the study of the characteristics and mechanisms of the spontaneous child-dog interactions and communications in a familiar setting, home and immediate surroundings, for both individuals, and 2. an experimental analysis of the sensory characteristics that regulate child-dog interactions. The main results can be summarized as follows:1. Of the child's behavioral and verbal patterns, touching behavior is the most frequent.2. The frequency of the child's touching behavior as compared to non-touching behavior is significantly different when the child is in front of or behind the dog's head.3. Only 43% of the child's behaviors are followed by an observable modification in the dog. The dog reacts aggressively to the child's behavior in fewer than 4% of the observations.4. Forty-eight percent of the dog's behaviors are not followed by an observable modification in the child's behavior.5. The age of the child appears to be the most di...