Child Custody Litigants Research Articles

Use of the Parents Preference Test in Child Custody Evaluations: Preliminary Development of Conforming Parenting Index

The Parents Preference Test (PPT) is a graphical test comprised of 24 easy to understand images of daily family life, which is widely used in forensic assessments of parenting skills. Nevertheless, the PPT lacks validity scales to detect participants’ attitudes toward the test; this is an important oversight, as the tendency to demonstrate faking-good parenting behaviors is common in child custody litigants. Study 1 aimed at identifying the differences in PPT responses between a normative/control group ( N = 110) and a sample of parents undergoing a psychological evaluation of parenting ability ( N = 99). Chi-square goodness of fit tests showed significant differences in answer preferences between groups in 11 vignettes (almost half of the total PPT items). Study 2 aimed at developing an index to detect faking-good behaviors. On the 11 vignettes in which significant differences in answer preferences were found in Study 1, the alternatives chosen with the highest frequency by the forensic group were added to an index called the “Conforming Parenting Index” (CPI). The area under the curve (AUC) of a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for a sample of 58 participants who completed the PPT under both standard and faking-good instructions demonstrated good classification accuracy (AUC= .813).

MMPI-2-RF Profiles in Child Custody Litigants.

Background and Purpose: A psychological assessment of parents in post-divorce child custody disputes highlighted parents’ motivation to appear as adaptive and responsible caregivers. The study hypothesized that personality self-report measures completed by child custody litigants (CCLs) during a parental skills assessment would show underreporting, rendering the measures worthless. The study also analyzed gender differences in a CCL sample, general CCL profiles, and the implicit structure of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) in the CCL sample. Materials and Methods: The sample comprised 400 CCLs undergoing personality evaluation as part of a parenting skills assessment. The mean age of the 204 mothers was 41.31 years (SD = 6.6), with an overall range of 24–59 years. Mothers had a mean educational level of 14.48 years (SD = 3.2). The 196 fathers were aged 20–59 years (M = 42.31; SD = 7.8), with an average of 14.48 years (SD = 3.9) of education. The MMPI-2-RF was administered. To test the hypotheses, multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) and two-step cluster analyses were run. Results: CCL subjects reported higher scores in underreporting (L-r and K-r) and lower scores in overreporting [F-r, Fp-r, Fs-r, and response bias scale (RBS)] validity scales and restructured clinical (RC) scales, with the exception of RC2 and RC8. RC6 (Ideas of Persecution) was the most elevated. Intercorrelations within the RC scales significantly differed between CCL and normative samples. Women appeared deeply motivated to display a faking-good defensive profile, together with lower levels of cynicism and antisocial behaviors, compared to CCL men. Two-step cluster analyses identified three female CCL profiles and two male CCL profiles. Approximately 44% of the MMPI-2-RF profiles were deemed possibly underreporting and, for this reason, considered worthless. Discussion: The present study adds useful insight about which instruments are effective for assessing the personality characteristics of parents undergoing a parental skills assessment in the context of a child custody dispute. The results show that almost half of the MMPI-2-RF protocols in the CCL sample were worthless due to their demonstration of an underreporting attitude. This highlights the necessity to interpret CCL profiles in light of normative data collected specifically in a forensic setting and the need for new and promising methods of mainstreaming and administering the MMPI-2-RF.

The Utility of the MCMI-III in Parental Competency Assessments

ABSTRACTChild welfare agencies and legal authorities have frequently turned to psychologists to conduct parental competency assessments (PCA) to inform decisions aimed to advocate the best interests of children and protect them from maltreatment. The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory–Third Edition (MCMI-III) is an empirically supported measure that is commonly used in the context of these examinations. This study compared the MCMI-III performance of an American-based PCA sample with previously published studies in the civil parenting literature and further explored differences across gender groups. Results revealed subclinical elevations in the “normal quartet” that were generally consistent with child custody litigants (CCE) and non-American PCA examinees in previous studies. The PCA sample produced higher rates of psychiatric pathology as compared to the CCE sample and the clinical population more generally. American and non-American PCA examinees endorsed similar rates of pathology, though American PCA examinees produced significantly higher scores on Antisocial and Drug Dependence scales. Results are suggestive of demographic differences that may account for inconsistent findings across studies.

An Examination of the MMPI-2-RF (Restructured Form) With the MMPI-2 and MCMI-III of Child Custody Litigants

Psychologists have become increasingly involved with child custody evaluations. These evaluations involve a variety of psychometric instruments, such as the MMPI-2 and MCMI-III, to assess parental fitness. Studies examining psychometric instruments in the child custody context have addressed the MMPI-2 and MCMI-III individually; however, test-taking attitudes across multiple measures have been limited. The present study compared the MCMI-III with the MMPI-2-RF in a sample of 49 child custody litigants, as well as examined how the sample performed on the MMPI-2-RF. Significant correlations were found between MMPI-2-RF Validity Scale L-r, MCMI-III Modifying Index Y, MMPI-2-RF Scale RC9, and MCMI-III Scale 5. Results also showed consistency between T score elevations typically found on MMPI-2 Validity Scales L and K with scales L-r and K-r on the MMPI-2-RF. Mean T scores for the RC Scales demonstrated lower elevations than have been shown with the MMPI-2 Clinical Scales in samples of child custody litigants.

MMPI-2 Clinical Scale 6 (Paranoia) and Restructured Clinical Scale 6 (Ideas of Persecution) in Child Custody Litigants

The MMPI-2 is the most frequently used psychological test with parents undergoing child custody evaluations (CCE’s). Studies of parents who completed the MMPI-2 in the CCE context have consistently found that, on average, parents portray a very favorable image of themselves as both virtuous and psychologically well-adjusted. Also, on average, Clinical Scale 6 (Paranoia) and its counterpart on the Restructured Clinical Scales, RC6, “Ideas of Persecution”, have been the most frequently elevated of the clinical scales on the MMPI-2 in samples of child custody litigants, albeit, the reported scores on these scales were well within the norm. This paper examines the significance of clinically elevated scores on Scale 6 (and RC6) in parents undergoing CCE’s, with consideration of both contextual and psychometric features. Based on these considerations, this writer suggests that custody evaluators may encounter the paradox that some parents whose clinical profile suggests mistrust and suspiciousness in interpersonal relations may actually trust enough to report their perceptions in a candid and forthcoming manner. Some of these parents may not be mistrustful in general and might not be inclined to model or influence their children toward the development of mistrust. In contrast, other parents may respond to the test in a more defensive and deceptive manner resulting in a “normal” clinical profile, which may be specific to the evaluation context, but may also reflect moral righteousness and a more insidious tactic. The custody evaluator is advised to use caution when interpreting clinically elevated scores on the MMPI-2.

Problems With Using the MMPI–2–RF in Forensic Evaluations: A Clarification to Ellis

Toward the end of her article addressing the prevalence of MMPI-2 Scale 4 elevations among child custody litigants, Ellis recommended use of the MMPI-2-RF scales in child custody evaluations. Unfortunately, this recommendation was not supported by a comprehensive review of the literature similar to the one she used to address her primary questions about MMPI-2 Scale 4. This article describes many of the criticisms of the MMPI–2–RF, and its various scales, including the RC Scales and the Fake Bad Scale (recently renamed the Symptom Validity Scale). The MMPI-2-RF and its scales are novel measures whose use may be challenged in forensic settings. Psychologists considering including them as part of a test battery must evaluate their psychometric properties by carefully examining the test manuals, empirical studies, and recent textbooks. Many experts do not consider the MMPI-2-RF to be a viable replacement for the MMPI-2 in critical evaluations such as child custody.

Are MMPI–2 Scale 4 Elevations Common Among Child Custody Litigants?

The paper opens with a case study in which a child custody evaluator was cited for incorrectly stating that Scale 4 elevations on the MMPI–2 are common among child custody litigants. The author reviews the research on elevations on the validity and clinical scales on the MMPI–2 commonly seen in child custody cases. While the size of the elevations vary, and are usually small, the consensus among a large number of experts is that elevations on Scale 4 (Pd), among others, are common among child custody litigants, and that MMPI–2 results must be interpreted in this context.

A Comparison of MMPI-2-RF Profiles between Child Maltreatment and Non-maltreatment Custody Cases

MMPI-2-RF profiles were compared for child maltreatment (n = 61) versus non-maltreatment (n = 168) samples. Maltreatment profiles showed elevations five to seven points higher on scales L-r, THD, RC3, RC6, and FML, and about four points higher on scales RC4, RC8, PSYC, and JCP. Results appeared consistent with previous research conducted with the MMPI-2. Sixty-seven percent of Maltreatment (Parental Fitness Evaluees Group) participants showed at least one clinical elevation; 55% of Non-Maltreatment (Child Custody Litigants Group) participants did so. Twenty-five percent of Maltreatment participants showed six or more clinical elevations whereas 8% of Non-maltreatment participants did so.

Comparing the MMPI-2 scale scores of parents involved in parental competency and child custody assessments.

MMPI-2 scores from a parent competency sample (N = 136 parents) are compared with a previously published data set of MMPI-2 scores for child custody litigants (N = 508 parents; Bathurst et al., 1997). Independent samples t tests yielded significant and in some cases substantial differences on the standard MMPI-2 clinical scales (especially Scales 4, 8, 2, and 0), with the competency sample obtaining higher clinical scores as well as higher scores on F, FB, VRIN, TRIN, and L, but lower scores on K, relative to the custody sample. Despite the higher scores in the competency sample, MMPI-2 mean scores did not exceed the clinical cutoff (T > 65). Moreover, the present competency sample essentially replicates the MMPI-2 scores of a previously published competency sample, suggesting that the present findings are representative of that population. The present findings suggest that separate reference groups be used when conducting child custody vs. parental competency evaluations, as these appear to be distinct populations despite there being similarities in the testing circumstances.

Children's Attachment Relationships: Can Attachment Data Be Used in Child Custody Evaluations?

The applicability of attachment theory to the practice of performing child custody evaluations has been a topic of interest in the literature, yet there remains a chasm between research and practice. Evaluating the quality of parent-child relationships is a central task of custody evaluators; however, the field has not been well informed by the vast scientific knowledge base forged by attachment theory. Current practice among custody evaluators involves the use of terminology and conclusions that often distort the findings from attachment research. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief overview of the key concepts in attachment, to describe select attachment assessment tools and their potential applicability to the custody evaluation context, and to provide models for potential integration of attachment research in evaluations. Given the limited research pertaining to the use of such instruments within a forensic setting, the need for research evaluating key attachment assessment tools among child custody litigants is highlighted.

MMPI-2-RF Characteristics of Custody Evaluation Litigants

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) is a 338-item objective self-report measure drawn from the 567 items of the MMPI-2. Although there is a substantial MMPI-2 literature regarding child custody litigants, there has been only one previously published study using MMPI-2-RF data in this population that focused on Validity scales L-r and K-r. The current study evaluated the MMPI-2-RF results of 344 child custody litigants and showed substantial consistency between T-score elevations typically found on MMPI-2 Validity scales L and K, and comparable elevations for MMPI-2-RF validity scales L-r and K-r. Mean T-scores well within normal limits characterized results for clinical scales on both instruments. The RC scale intercorrelation patterns, and alpha coefficient values found for MMPI-2-RF scales in a custody population, were also found to be very similar to those reported for other populations. Directions for future research are presented.

Validity of the MMPI-2-RF (restructured form) L-r and K-r scales in detecting underreporting in clinical and nonclinical samples.

In the current investigation, the authors examined the validity of the L-r and K-r scales on the recently developed Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF; Y. S. Ben-Porath & A. Tellegen, in press) in measuring underreported response bias. Three archival samples previously collected for examining MMPI-2 validity scales were reanalyzed in 2 studies. In Study 1 L-r and K-r significantly differentiated 2 groups of participants (patients with schizophrenia and university students) who had been instructed to underreport on the MMPI-2 from participants who took the test under standard instructions. L-r and K-r also added incremental predictive variance to one another in differentiating these groups. In Study 2 a similar set of outcomes emerged through the use of a differential prevalence design in which L-r and K-r significantly differentiated a group of child custody litigants who were administered the MMPI-2 from university students taking the test under standard instructions.

An Analysis of Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation of the MMPI-2 and MCMI-II/III in Child Custody Evaluations

ABSTRACT A survey of experienced psychologists was conducted to analyze the procedures used in administering, scoring, and interpreting the MMPI-2 and MCMI-II/III in child custody evaluations. Findings revealed some major concerns, such as over-reliance on computer-generated interpretive reports, lack of knowledge about base rate cut-offs for interpreting the MCMI-II/III, and a failure to consider available MMPI-2 context specific normative data for child custody litigants. Also, a smaller group of psychologists hand scored the protocols or failed to verify computer keypad data entry, and allowed examinees to take the test in the lobby. The rationales underlying these concerns are outlined, along with the need for psychologists to adhere closely to professional and ethical standards in this regard.

Testing, One, Two, Three, Testing: An Attorney Perspective

SUMMARY This article addresses the attorney perspective on the use of psychometric testing in the context of family law child custody evaluations. Although attorneys, judicial officers and child custody evaluators “use” psychometric testing in family law matters, the ways in which each discipline uses the information gleaned from the results of these tests as administered to child custody litigants can differ substantially. This article distinguishes the attorney perspective from the mental health perspective in the use of the results of such tests.

The MCMI-III in Child Custody Evaluations

This study provides normative data on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (MCMI-III) among 259 child custody examinees who were obtained from private practice settings in four different states. The mean MCMI-III profile in this sample was an elevation on Scale Y (Desirability), with subclinical elevations on Scales 4 (Histrionic), 5 (Narcissistic), and 7 (Compulsive). Females scored significantly higher than males on Scales 4,5, and 7. Moreover, mean Base Rate (BR) scores were very low for most scales. With the exception of Scales 4 and 7 for females, the frequency of clinically significant elevations (i.e., BR > 75) on MCMI-III scales was very low among child custody litigants. Results from this study provide empirical support for the position that the MCMI-III does not overpathologize child custody examinees. Some interpretive guidelines are offered to reduce the likelihood of false positive diagnoses on those few scales where such errors may arise. This study provides support for continued use of the MCMI-III in child custody evaluations.

Taxometric Analysis of Impression Management and Self-Deception on the MMPI-2 in Child-Custody Litigants

The typology of impression management (IM), a deliberate attempt to create a positive social image, and self-deceptive positivity (SDP), an unintentional concealment of symptoms, were examined using taxometric procedures with MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) underreporting scales in several custody-litigant samples. IM was identified as a taxon using several procedures and estimates of the base rate that were consistent (.40, .37, .31, .36, .37). SDP was better characterized as a dimensional construct. Means and estimated validities for MMPI-2 underreporting scales in this sample are reported. IM and SDP appear to be distinct and measurable underreporting constructs on the MMPI-2.

Comparison of MMPI--2 responses of child custody and personal injury litigants.

Comparison of MMPI--2 responses of child custody and personal injury litigants.

Normative data for the MMPI-2 in child custody litigation.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) norms based on 508 child custody litigants are presented. Defensive underreporting and self-favorability were often exhibited along with an elevation on the Over-Controlled Hostility (O-H) scale. Highest mean clinical scale scores were Hysteria, Paranoia, and Psychopathic Deviate. Differences were not found among mothers, fathers, and stepparents, indicating that a single set of norms is suitable. Findings highlight the importance of context specificity in personality assessment. Proper interpretation of personality inventories in child custody disputes needs to consider both the norms of the standardization sample and the litigants' reference norms. It was not possible to determine from the MMPI-2 per se whether a defensive approach overestimates mental health in a psychologically healthy population or conceals symptomatology in psychologically disturbed persons.