Children's Attachment Behavior Research Articles

The association between parent–child attachment and prosocial behavior: A longitudinal study

The association between parent–child attachment and prosocial behavior: A longitudinal study

발달장애 아동의 안정애착을 위한 승마치료 효과

This study is the effect of equestrian therapy for secure attachment of children with developmental disabilities. The subjects of this study were two children (boys) with developmental disabilities, and this study was conducted to find out what effect they had after equestrian therapy. The study period was conducted for a total of 10 sessions from August 2021 to October 2021. A social-emotional positive behavior measurement tool was used to examine the effect after horseback riding therapy. As a result of the study, equestrian therapy was effective in the secure attachment and social-emotional positive behavior of children with developmental disabilities. Equestrian therapy had effects before and after equestrian therapy, such as obedience, attention, motivation, and prosocial peer relationships, which are components of positive social-emotional behavior for children with developmental disabilities. Children with developmental disabilities develop a set of beliefs, attitudes and expectations related to themselves and others through horseback riding experience. In particular, the effective use of horses for treatment is that horses have a long history of living with humans, are familiar with social signals, respond well, and interact with humans very easily. Therefore, it can be said that equestrian therapy had an effect on new challenges, secure attachment, and improvement of self-esteem for children with developmental disabilities, and this study will serve as basic data for approaches to psychotherapy for children with developmental disabilities

발달장애 아동의 안정애착을 위한 승마치료 효과

This study is the effect of equestrian therapy for secure attachment of children with developmental disabilities. The subjects of this study were two children (boys) with developmental disabilities, and this study was conducted to find out what effect they had after equestrian therapy. The study period was conducted for a total of 10 sessions from August 2021 to October 2021. A social-emotional positive behavior measurement tool was used to examine the effect after horseback riding therapy. As a result of the study, equestrian therapy was effective in the secure attachment and social-emotional positive behavior of children with developmental disabilities. Equestrian therapy had effects before and after equestrian therapy, such as obedience, attention, motivation, and prosocial peer relationships, which are components of positive social-emotional behavior for children with developmental disabilities. Children with developmental disabilities develop a set of beliefs, attitudes and expectations related to themselves and others through horseback riding experience. In particular, the effective use of horses for treatment is that horses have a long history of living with humans, are familiar with social signals, respond well, and interact with humans very easily. Therefore, it can be said that equestrian therapy had an effect on new challenges, secure attachment, and improvement of self-esteem for children with developmental disabilities, and this study will serve as basic data for approaches to psychotherapy for children with developmental disabilities

발달장애 아동의 안정애착을 위한 승마치료 효과

This study is the effect of equestrian therapy for secure attachment of children with developmental disabilities. The subjects of this study were two children (boys) with developmental disabilities, and this study was conducted to find out what effect they had after equestrian therapy. The study period was conducted for a total of 10 sessions from August 2021 to October 2021. A social-emotional positive behavior measurement tool was used to examine the effect after horseback riding therapy. As a result of the study, equestrian therapy was effective in the secure attachment and social-emotional positive behavior of children with developmental disabilities. Equestrian therapy had effects before and after equestrian therapy, such as obedience, attention, motivation, and prosocial peer relationships, which are components of positive social-emotional behavior for children with developmental disabilities. Children with developmental disabilities develop a set of beliefs, attitudes and expectations related to themselves and others through horseback riding experience. In particular, the effective use of horses for treatment is that horses have a long history of living with humans, are familiar with social signals, respond well, and interact with humans very easily. Therefore, it can be said that equestrian therapy had an effect on new challenges, secure attachment, and improvement of self-esteem for children with developmental disabilities, and this study will serve as basic data for approaches to psychotherapy for children with developmental disabilities

Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment between Incarcerated Mothers and Their Co-residing Children.

Maternal attachment representations and children's attachment to their mothers have been shown to be related while this association varies according to socioeconomic risk factors that these mother-child dyads are experiencing. In this regard, this study aims to investigate the intergenerational transmission of attachment between highly disadvantaged incarcerated mothers and their co-residing children and the mediating role of maternal sensitivity in the relationship between maternal and children's attachment representations. The study sample consists of 84 incarcerated mothers and their co-residing children. The maternal attachment was evaluated using the Doll Story Completion Task. Children's attachment and maternal sensitivity were assessed based on a 45-minute semi-structured mother-child interaction observation and rated through structured coding instruments. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that mothers' anxious and avoidant attachment positively predicted children's disorganized attachment behaviors. Moreover, analyses showed that maternal sensitivity did not mediate the relationship between maternal and child attachment representations. Findings partially supported the discussion emphasizing that attachment transmission, as well as the mediating role of maternal sensitivity on this transmission, appeared to be weaker for disadvantaged mother-child dyads. Implications for future intervention programs aiming to support the attachment security and reduce the disorganization of children co-residing with their incarcerated mothers are discussed.

The effect of relationship-based interventions for maltreated children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Child maltreatment is characterized by a harmful relational environment which can have negative cascading consequences for the child's development. Relationship-based interventions may improve maltreated children's functioning by addressing key aspects of the parent-child relationship at various stages of development. The objective of the current study was to perform a systematic review on relationship-based interventions for maltreated children and a meta-analysis on the impact of these interventions on observed parent-child relational behavior. Data collection consisted of a comprehensive literature search in six databases and contacting experts in the field and hand searching relevant publications. In total, 5,802 abstracts were screened, of which 81 relevant publications were identified, representing 4,526 participants. The meta-analysis found large improvements in observed parent interactive behavior (g = 0.888), smaller improvements in child attachment (g = 0.403) and child interactive behavior (g = 0.274). The effect on parent interactive behavior was larger in interventions addressing middle childhood. Risk of bias assessments showed that a large number of studies suffer from poor reporting, which limits the conclusions of the findings. Future research should examine parent-child relationship behavior across multiple developmental stages, as well as the impact of developmentally appropriate intervention elements on maltreated children.

The possible role of oxytocin in neuropsychiatric disorders

Oxytocin (OT) is a peptide hormone unique to mammals, typically involved in activities characteristic of this vertebrate class, such as labour and lactation. Evidence suggests a role of OT even in most complex activities, including child attachment, maternal care, couple bonding, emotional and social behaviors. Furthermore, it seems to contribute to the modulation of stress responses, learning, and memory processes, as well as to the connection of social signals with cognition, behaviors and reward. For this reason, for years there has been a debate on the possible contribution of the OT system in the pathophysiology of different neuropsychiatric disorders, including autism spectrum disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, addiction, and schizophrenia. In this article, we describe the most relevant findings on OT system abnormalities in the aforementioned disorders, with a focus on possible therapeutic implications.

Questionnaires for the Assessment of Bonding During Pregnancy and after Birth (Part 3 of a series on psychological assessment during the peripartum period)

Bonding of (expectant) parents with their child is of great importance for the psychological well-being of both the parents and the child. This is especially true if parents suffer from mental health problems like depression. Furthermore, attachment experiences during early childhood can affect both the child's mental health as well as later relationships. However, typical assessment methods like the Strange Situation Test are not very suitable in clinical practice in neonatology and obstetrics, especially since the focus here is primarily on the child's attachment behavior. In addition, bonding with the unborn child cannot be assessed in this way. Therefore, questionnaires represent a more feasible method for the assessment of parental bonding. Instruments have been developed for the time during pregnancy and after birth, but most of them were developed for women. Also, there is a need for further methodological development of these questionnaires. Cut-offs and norm values are highly relevant for clinical practice, but still need to be established in some cases. Assessment of parental bonding using questionnaires can potentially be beneficial and will most likely help to initiate timely supportive interventions.

Non-physiological and Physiological Delivery Method: Comparison of Maternal Attachment Behaviors and Anxiety.

Introduction: Attachment is a stable connection or emotional knot between two individuals as one of the parties tries to maintain this connection. Delivery time as a turning point between two stages of attachment is very important.Methods: In a descriptive–analytical study based on specific inclusion criteria, 262 pregnant women were selected in the age range of 15-45 years old and the gestational age of 37 to 42 weeks who were candidates for physiological or non-physiological delivery. After obtaining written consent forms, the demographic information questionnaire was given to the participants. One hour after delivery, the attachment questionnaire was completed by the researcher in the postpartum ward. Also, the Spielberg anxiety inventory was completed up to 1 hour after delivery. Independent sample t test was used to compare the results between the two groups. Data were analyzed by SPSS software version 21.Results: The participants in the physiological delivery group showed more positive attachment behaviors in comparison with the other group. In all three dimensions of attachment (emotional, contiguous, and caring behavior), physiological delivery showed higher scores than the other group. Also in non-physiological delivery group, the participants had experienced higher levels of anxiety and the differences between the groups were not significant.Conclusion: Results of the current study indicated that mothers engaged in physiological delivery had higher scores in mother to child attachment behaviors. It means they are more successful than the non-physiological delivery group in getting attached to their babies.

Maternal Depression and Child Externalizing Behaviors: The Role of Attachment Across Development in Low-income Families.

Early attachment quality may be a lasting source of vulnerability or protection in children's development. In this study, we examine whether attachment quality at age three moderates the impact of subsequent exposure to maternal depression (at age five or nine) on children's externalizing symptoms at age nine. The sample included 1,917 low-income families (mean child age = 9.28; 55.9% African-American, 20.6% White, 20.0% Latina, 3.5% Other) from the Fragile Families and Child Well Being Study. At age three, 23.9% of children were categorized as insecurely attached based on maternal report of their child's attachment behaviors. At age nine, mothers, teachers, and children reported on the child's externalizing behaviors. Mothers also completed measures of maternal depression at child age three, five, and nine. Controlling for age three externalizing (by maternal report) and age three maternal depression as well as various demographic factors, attachment quality interacted with exposure to subsequent maternal depression in predicting externalizing behaviors at age nine. Interaction effects were evident in mother, teacher, and child report of externalizing. Across all three reporters, exposure to maternal depression was associated with greater externalizing behaviors in children who exhibited insecure attachment behaviors at age three. These findings highlight the potential benefit of interventions to improve early parent-child relationships for families at elevated risk because of maternal mental health.

Child attachment behavior as a moderator of the relation between feeding responsiveness and picky eating behavior

BackgroundPicky eating (PE) behavior is common in early childhood, but persistent PE is associated with unhealthy development and caregiver-child stress during feeding. Identifying modifiable feeding and parent-child relationship factors that impact PE is important for decreasing risks associated with PE. ObjectiveThis study examined associations between caregiver Feeding Responsiveness (FR) and child PE behaviors using caregiver reports and observations of family mealtimes. An additional aim examined whether children's attachment behavior moderates this association. MethodsThe analysis sample consisted of 110 families participating in a larger longitudinal study of nutrition and child health. Home observations were conducted when children were 18–24 months (52% females) to assess caregiver-child interactions. Caregivers were, on average, 30.9 years old and mostly White (73.6%). Family mealtimes were videotaped and coded for FR and child PE behaviors. Caregivers completed surveys regarding FR and PE behaviors. ResultsCaregiver-reported FR was significantly correlated with observed FR, r (107) = 0.26, p = 0.007; and caregiver-reported PE was associated with observed PE, r (107) = 0.21, p = 0.029. Caregiver-reported FR was inversely related to observed PE, but only when children were characterized by observers to have more positively toned and smooth interactions with caregivers. Using observational data, child attachment significantly moderated the relationship between FR and PE behaviors. ConclusionsThe quality of caregiver-child interactions may impact the degree to which FR is effective in reducing PE. Future longitudinal studies that include more diverse populations, multiple caregivers, and potential mechanisms accounting for these associations are needed.

Foster children’s attachment representations: the role of type of maltreatment and the relationship with birth family

ABSTRACT Children in foster care are at risk of developing insecure and disorganized attachment, which is problematic for establishing new relationships in foster families. However, most previous studies have focused on attachment behaviors in young children rather than on attachment representations. We compared foster children’s attachment representations with those of a community group, analyzing also the contribution made by different factors to foster children’s attachment representations. We assessed the attachment representations of 109 children aged between 4 and 9 years (51 children in non-kin foster care and 58 community children) in southern Spain, using a narrative story stem measure. Case records information were collected for adversity and child protection variables. Foster children had fewer security and more avoidance indicators than their community counterparts, with those who had suffered more severe maltreatment scoring lower for security and higher for disorganization. Exposure to physical and emotional abuse and birth parents’ opposition to the foster placement predicted more disorganized attachment representations. Interventions with foster children should consider their heterogeneity in terms of attachment outcomes, and foster caregivers of abused children may need guidance in order to provide therapeutic caregiving.

The role of consultative alliance in infant and early childhood mental health consultation: Child, teacher, and classroom outcomes.

Young children's social-emotional development is powerfully shaped by their early environments, which for many includes early childhood education (ECE). Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation (IECMHC) pairs teachers and infant and early childhood mental health (IECMH) consultants to promote teachers' capacity to foster positive social-emotional development in ECE. Although the outcomes of IECMHC have been well studied, little research has investigated how this model leads to changes for teachers and children. According to theory, the quality of the relationship between teachers and IECMH consultants, termed consultative alliance (CA), is a key mechanism of change. This study analyzed the role of CA on 6-month outcomes of IECMHC in a sample of 316 children, 289 teachers, and 62 IECMH consultants. Results from multilevel models suggested that stronger CA predicted greater improvements in teacher-child closeness and teacher-rated child attachment behaviors. In addition, a strong CA was related to greater improvement in classroom climate, teachers' self-efficacy, and teachers' perceptions of their jobs. This study upholds the centrality of relationship-building and parallel process in mental health consultation, and by advancing understanding of the mechanisms of change for IECMHC may provide salient implications for policy and practice.

An Overview of Attachment Patterns: Psychology, Neurobiology, and Clinical Implications.

Attachment is an emotional bond that connects children to their caregivers. The psychology of attachment suggests that children with a stronger relationship with their primary caregivers are considered secure in their attachment patterns, whereas children with a strained relationship with their early caregivers and who had felt rejected in their childhood are considered insecure. The quality of the nurturing environment in the early stages of life of children and the relationship of parents themselves (e.g., divorce, conflict) contribute significantly to shaping a child's attachment behaviors. The neurobiology of attachment patterns includes the (a) hypothalamus, which mediates stress hormones; (b) amygdala, which controls stronger emotions such as fear; and (c) prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for emotional regulation. These areas of the brain play a vital role in children's socioemotional development. The current article reviews four attachment patterns: insecure avoidant (type A), secure (type B), insecure ambivalent/resistant (type C), and disorganized (an extreme form of insecure attachment), and explores the implications of attachment patterns on the mental health of children. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 58(8), 18-22.].

The Impact of Parent-Child Attachment on Self-Injury Behavior: Negative Emotion and Emotional Coping Style as Serial Mediators.

In order to explore the relationship between parent–child attachment, negative emotion, emotional coping style, and self-injury behavior, 662 junior high school students in four junior middle schools in China’s Yunnan Province were investigated using a parent–child attachment questionnaire, adolescent negative emotion questionnaire, emotional coping style scale, and adolescent self-injury behavior scale. As a result, two mediate models were created to explain how parent–child attachment affects self-injury behavior. Negative emotion and emotional coping style play serial mediating roles in mother–child and father–child attachment models, respectively. The results show that negative emotion mediates between self-injury behavior and both father–child and mother–child attachment, while emotional coping style only functions between father–child attachment and self-injury behavior. By means of bootstrap analysis, negative emotion and emotional coping style have serial mediating roles concerning the impact of parent–child attachment on self-injury behavior. By comparison, the father–child and mother–child attachment have different mediating models: the former relies on emotional coping style, while the latter is associated with emotional experiences. This implies that parent–child attachment has different mechanisms in triggering self-injury behavior, which is in line with the hypothesis of attachment specificity.

Examining the role of mother-child interactions and DNA methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene in understanding child controlling attachment behaviors

ABSTRACT This study examined mother-child interactions and DNA methylation of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene in the child, in relation with controlling-attachment behaviors at early preschool age. Maternal interactive behaviors were coded using the Emotional Availability Scales, and child attachment behaviors were assessed with the Separation-Reunion procedure and coded with the Preschool Attachment Rating Scales. DNA methylation data were captured from exon 3 of the OXTR. Results indicated that lower maternal sensitivity was associated with more controlling-caregiving behaviors, and that less maternal structuring was associated with more controlling-punitive behaviors. Hypomethylation of the OXTR gene was associated with greater maternal structuring behaviors, and with more child controlling-caregiving behaviors. The moderating role of the OXTR gene was examined in the association between interactive behaviors and child controlling behaviors, but no interaction effect was found. These results suggest that maternal interactive behaviors and OXTR methylation are independently associated with child controlling attachment.

Remediating Child Attachment Insecurity: Evaluating the Basic Trust Intervention in Adoptive Families

Purpose: This study evaluated the video-feedback intervention Basic Trust in families with internationally adoptive children aged 2–12 years. The intervention aims to reduce child attachment insecurity and behavior problems by enhancing mothers’ and fathers’ sensitivity and mind-mindedness (parents’ capacity to hold in mind the mind of their child). Method: Fifty-three adoptive families participated in a pretest, posttest, and 6-month follow-up assessment. Questionnaires on parenting stress, child attachment insecurity, and behavior problems were administered. Parents’ sensitivity was assessed from free-play observations at home, and mind-mindedness was measured with a describe-your-child interview. Results: Parents reported less child behavior problems, insecure and disorganized attachment, and parenting stress at posttest and follow-up. Parents’ mind-mindedness increased from pre- to post-test but not from pretest to follow-up. Parents’ sensitivity showed an improvement at follow-up. Conclusions: Future studies should investigate whether the present study’s positive results can be replicated under conditions of strict experimental control.

Attachment, dependency, and attachment-related behaviors in foster children: A closer look at the nature of the foster child–caregiver relationship

There is evidence that within the first year in the foster home, children are capable of forming secure attachment comparable to normative samples. However, less is known about the nature of these newly formed relationships and it has been claimed that they may serve different developmental functions as those to primary caregivers formed in the first year of life. The current study aimed to address this void by applying a behavioral system approach. The sample consisted of 46 children (aged 3–6), 16 of which were currently placed in foster care. Attachment security and dependency were assessed during a home visit using the Attachment Q-Sort. Furthermore, activation of several attachment-related behavioral systems was assessed during a stranger approach in a standardized laboratory setting. Compared to the control group, foster children showed equal levels of attachment security but highly increased dependency scores. Also, during the stranger approach, they showed increased attachment behaviors toward their foster mothers and, at the same time, increased looking behavior toward the stranger. The study points out the relevance of taking into account various attachment-related constructs when investigating formations to new attachment figures in out of home care. It further claims that increased dependency and proximity-seeking scores in foster children are characteristic of the newly formed relationship and a possible indicator of foster children’s adaption. Moreover, this behavior may even be highly beneficial to foster children’s socio-emotional development as it possibly serves important developmental functions.

The Father-infant relationship beyond caregiving sensitivity

ABSTRACTParental sensitive behavior is seen as one of the main determinants of attachment security. However, studies also suggest that other behaviors may be stronger predictors of the parent-child relationship (Lucassen et al., 2011). The lack of a significant association between sensitive behavior and the quality of the attachment relationship between father and child in Olsavsky et.al’s study indeed seems to reflect the notion that other interactive behaviors may be specific in father-child relationships (i.e., destabilizing behavior followed by sensitivity). Since the strength of the association between the quality of parental interactive behavior (e.g., sensitive, responsive behavior) and child attachment security is moderate (Fearon & Belsky, 2016), and weaker for fathers (Lucassen et al., 2011) there is a need to examine other factors beyond caregiving sensitivity in attachment research. For example, the important role of reparation of mismatching to matching states and fathers’ own attachment history as related to frightening behavior and mentalization are factors that need to be taken into account. It is essential to apply a broader view of father’s parenting behaviors in different contexts (distress, non-distress, or risky contexts) and a broader view of child attachment behaviors in relationship with the father.

III. THE ORGANIZATION OF ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN EARLY CHILDHOOD: LINKS WITH MATERNAL SENSITIVITY AND CHILD ATTACHMENT REPRESENTATIONS.

This article investigated two central questions about mother-child attachment relationships during early childhood: (1) the association between maternal sensitivity and child attachment behavior (Study 1) and (2) the link between child attachment behavior and representations (Study 2). In Study 1, maternal sensitivity and child security were assessed in naturalistic contexts among 74 middle-class dyads, when children were about 3.5 and again 5.5 years of age, using the Maternal Behavior with Preschoolers Q-set (MBPQS) and the Attachment Q-set (AQS), respectively. Sensitivity and security were significantly related at each point in time and stable from 3.5 to 5.5 years of age. Furthermore, changes in sensitivity predicted changes in child security. In Study 2, the relationship between the organization of preschoolers' attachment behavior and the structure of attachment representations (secure base script knowledge) was assessed. Participants were 158 preschoolers between 3 and 5.5 years. Children's secure base behavior was described with the AQS, whereas their attachment script knowledge was assessed with the MacArthur Attachment Story Completion Task. The organization of children's secure base behavior was significantly, if modestly, associated with their knowledge of the secure base script.