Chicken In Kenya Research Articles

Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of E. coli Isolated From Pooled Samples of Sick, Farm, and Market Chickens in Nairobi County, Kenya.

Bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat to both human and animal health. This is mainly because the same antimicrobial molecules are used for the treatment and prophylaxis of bacterial diseases in both cases, and about 60% of human pathogens are shared with animals. For effective control of AMR in any country, the current situation has to be established; this is done through surveillance exercises. In Kenya, there is scanty data on the prevailing AMR situation, especially in animals. This paper reports on AMR profiles of 54 E. coli strains isolated from chickens in a cross-sectional study, out of which 36/54 (72%) were from clinically ill chickens, 11/54 (22%) were from farm chickens, and 7/54 (9.7%) were from slaughtered chicken, respectively. All 54 isolates exhibited varying antimicrobial resistance profiles with the majority showing resistance to Ampicillin (85.22%), Tetracycline (66.7%), Co-trimoxazole (57.4%), and Streptomycin (40.7%). Very few isolates were resistant to Amoxicillin and Gentamicin (each at 3.7%), Ampicillin (11.1%), and Nalidixic acid (24.1%). A total of 44/54 (81.5%) showed multiple resistance to up to 6 antimicrobial agents. This information will augment current data on the AMR status of bacteria harbored by chickens in Kenya. It will also inform policymakers in their fight against AMR.

Gender-Responsive Design of Bacteriophage Products to Enhance Adoption by Chicken Keepers in Kenya.

Women and men keeping chickens in Kenya aspire to have a source of income, feed their families healthy food, and grow their businesses. Managing animal diseases and minimizing input costs enable their success. This study uses qualitative methods to recommend design opportunities for a veterinary product under development in Kenya that contains bacteriophages (phages) that target pathogenic Salmonella strains responsible for fowl typhoid, salmonellosis, and pullorum in chickens and foodborne illness in people. Our findings revealed the interplay between gender and two production systems: free-range and semi-intensive. Chicken keepers in both systems could benefit from phages combined with the orally administered Newcastle disease vaccine, one of the most commonly used preventive veterinary interventions, or phages as a treatment for fowl typhoid. Oral administration is less labor intensive, with greater benefits for women who have less control over family labor and reported doing more care tasks themselves. Men in free-range systems usually pay for veterinary inputs. In semi-intensive production systems, a phage-based product used prophylactically could be an alternative to expensive, intramuscular fowl typhoid vaccines. Keeping layers was common for women in semi-intensive systems, as they are more economically impacted by reduced laying caused by bacterial diseases. Awareness of zoonoses was low, but men and women were concerned about the negative health effects of drug residues in meat and eggs. Therefore, highlighting the lack of a withdrawal period for a phage product may appeal to customers. Antibiotics are used to both treat and prevent diseases, and phage products will need to do both to compete in the Kenyan market. These findings guide the ongoing design of a phage-based product with the goal of introducing a new veterinary product that meets the diverse needs of chicken keepers in Africa and serves as an alternative or complement to antibiotics.

Unique Variants of Avian Coronaviruses from Indigenous Chickens in Kenya.

The avian gamma-coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (AvCoV, IBV; Coronaviridae family) causes upper respiratory disease associated with severe economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide. Here, we report for the first time in Kenya and the Eastern African region two novel AvCoVs, designated IBV/ck/KE/1920/A374/2017 (A374/17) and AvCoV/ck/KE/1922/A376/2017 (A376/17), inadvertently discovered using random nontargeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) of cloacal swabs collected from indigenous chickens. Despite having genome organization (5'UTR-[Rep1a/1ab-S-3a-3b-E-M-4b-4c-5a-5b-N-6b]-3'UTR), canonical conservation of essential genes and size (~27.6 kb) typical of IBVs, the Kenyan isolates do not phylogenetically cluster with any genotypes of the 37 IBV lineages and 26 unique variants (UVs). Excluding the spike gene, genome sequences of A374/17 and A376/17 are only 93.1% similar to each other and 86.7-91.4% identical to genomes of other AvCoVs. All five non-spike genes of the two isolates phylogenetically cluster together and distinctly from other IBVs and turkey coronaviruses (TCoVs), including the indigenous African GI-26 viruses, suggesting a common origin of the genome backbone of the Kenyan isolates. However, isolate A376/17 contains a TCoV-like spike (S) protein coding sequence and is most similar to Asian TCoVs (84.5-85.1%) compared to other TCoVs (75.6-78.5%), whereas isolate A374/17 contains an S1 gene sequence most similar to the globally distributed lineage GI-16 (78.4-79.5%) and the Middle Eastern lineage GI-23 (79.8-80.2%) viruses. Unanswered questions include the actual origin of the Kenyan AvCoVs, the potential pathobiological significance of their genetic variations, whether they have indeed established themselves as independent variants and subsequently spread within Kenya and to the neighboring east/central African countries that have porous live poultry trade borders, and whether the live-attenuated Mass-type (lineage GI-1)-based vaccines currently used in Kenya and most of the African countries provide protection against these genetically divergent field variants.

Effects of Supplementing Different Levels of Stinging Nettle Leaf Meal on the Growth Performance of Starter Broilers

There is a growing concern by consumers of broiler chickens in Kenya over the injudicious use of antibiotic growth promoters such as oxytetracyclines which has led high tissue residues and consecutively, resistance to the drugs in both livestock and humans. This problem has elicited increased research towards natural alternatives. The current research was thus conducted to determine the optimal dietary inclusion levels of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) leaf meal (NLM) that result to improvements in feed intake (FI), growth rate (GR) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) of Cobb 500 starter broiler chickens. Four isonitrogeneous (20% crude protein (CP)) and isocaloric (3200 Kcal/kg) diets were formulated; Diet 1 (Control, NLM 0%), Diet 2 (NLM 1%), Diet 3 (NLM 1.5%) and Diet 4 (NLM 2%). Proximate analysis was undertaken for all experimental diets. A total of 48 unsexed chicks were weighed and randomly allocated the experimental diets with 4 replicates of 3 chicks each for 17 days. The FI and body weight gain (BWG) were weighed and recorded daily and weekly respectively. The GR and FCE were also calculated. Results showed that birds supplemented with NLM at 1% had significant mean (162.03g) for FI. Birds supplemented with NLM at 1.5% in the diet had the highest BWG (1930.50g) and GR (113.56g). However, 2% NLM supplemented birds showed the highest FCE (7.98). From the study, it was concluded that supplementing the diets of starter broiler chickens with NLM at 1.5% resulted to the highest BWG and GR.

Effect of feeding enzyme-treated Moringa (M. oleifera) leaf meal based-diets on egg quality of improved indigenous layer chicken in Kenya

The egg quality of indigenous chicken in Kenya is low due to inadequate supply of quality feed which can only be achieved by nutritional improvement. Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MOLM) provides proteins, vitamins, minerals and ox carotenoids that have a positive effect on the quality of eggs. The objective of this research was to determine the influence of MOLM on egg quality traits of improved indigenous laying hens. Ninety chicken (90) were assigned to six treatment diets in a completely randomised design with a factorial layout, each treatment having 5 birds per cage, replicated three times. The dietary treatments were: T1 – 0 kg MOLM and 0 g enzyme, T2 – 0 kg MOLM and 0.035 g enzyme, T3-20 kg MOLM and 0 g enzyme, and T4 – 20 kg MOLM and 0.035 g enzyme, T5-40 kg MOLM and 0 g enzyme, T6-40 kg MOLM and 0.035 g enzyme of the diet, respectively. The egg weight in hens fed with MOLM-based diets increased significantly (p 0.05). The laying hens fed a diet with 40 percent MOLM inclusion significantly had a higher (p

Performance of improved indigenous grower chicken in Kenya fed enzyme-treated Moringa (M. oleifera) leaf meal-based diets

A feeding trial was done to investigate the impact of the inclusion of enzyme-treated Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MOLM) on feed conversion ratio, average daily gain, feed intake, and point of the lay of improved indigenous grower chicken. Ninety chickens were randomly allocated to six treatment diets in a completely randomized design with a factorial layout, with each treatment having five chickens per cage, replicated three times. The following were the dietary treatments used: T1-comprised of 0 kg MOLM and 0 g enzyme, T2-comprised of 0 kg MOLM and 0.035 g enzyme, T3-comprised of 20 kg MOLM and 0 g enzyme, and T4-comprised of 20 kg MOLM and 0.035 g enzyme, T5-diet comprised of 40 kg MOLM and 0 g enzyme, T6-diet comprised of 40 kg MOLM and 0.035 g enzyme of the diet, respectively. The statistical analysis system's general linear model (GLM) approach was used in the data analysis. Tukey's test (p

Increase in Egg Production in Households using Low Cost Rations as Feeds for Indigenous Chickens in Kenya

The low productivity of indigenous chickens in Kenya and other parts of the world is partly attributed to poor management practices, in particular the lack of proper healthcare, poor housing and nutrition. However, studies have shown that poor nutrition is a major factor that contributes to the low growth rate and egg production in chickens. The objective in this study was to demonstrate and promote Ration A and B, for laying hens, to enhance egg production and household incomes. During the period 1 July 2018 to 31 March 2021, farmer groups interested in chicken production were selected in Embu and Tharaka Nithi counties. The criteria used in the selection of the farmer groups was chicken numbers, level of investment in chicken housing and equipment, interest in feed mixing, cohesion of farmer group, level of education and age of group members. Each farmer group was assigned a facilitator/ extension officer who trained its members on various aspects of chicken production with special emphasis on Ration formulation, mixing and feeding of laying hens. After mixing the Rations, samples were collected for chemical composition analysis so as to assess whether the Rations mixed met Kenya Bureau of Standards [KEBS] (2014) quality standards. At least three farmers within a group feeding the mixed Ration A or B to laying hens were selected to assess egg production. Prior to feeding on the Ration A or B, the same batch of birds in a farm was fed on commercial layers feed and egg production assessed. The results showed that (i) 3,968 farmers in Embu and Tharaka Nithi counties mixed and used 136,683 kg of Ration A and B to feed their laying hens, (ii) there was a 44.3% and 45.5% increase in egg production in households using Ration A and B, respectively, to feed their laying hens compared to commercial feeds.

Genetic evaluation of breeding program for body weight of indigenous chicken in Kenya


 The demand for poultry meat, particularly from indigenous chicken, is ever increasing. This need efficient production potential from the chicken. This paper simulated different scenarios of breeding program for indigenous chicken and compared the selection response with realized genetic gain after one generation of selection. A one stage discrete generation deterministic simulation approach using SelAction program was used. Two genetic parameters were employed. The phenotypic variances and heritability used were 25,000g and 0.25, 3040 and 0.51, respectively. For each case, 300 hens and 50 cocks were selected to produce the next generation. Each cock was mated to 6 hens and each hen produced 6 offspring. The best 50% and 20% of females and males, respectively, were selected for mating. The expected selection response was simulated as follows; a) own performance b) own performance, full sibs and half sibs and c) own performance with full sibs, half sibs and BLUP information sources. A sire model of BLUP was used for realized selection response. The predicted genetic gain for all simulated programs were much lower than realized response. This realized genetic gain could only be achieved by higher selection intensity on cocks, however this would increase the inbreeding rate above recommended level. The breeding program has shown potential for improvement and success in body weight at 12 weeks of age.

Effect of garlic and onion extract chitosan nanoparticles on selected intestinal bacterial flora in indigenous rainbow rooster chicken in Kenya

Bacterial microbes play a vital role in the nutrition and health of birds. Food passaging through the gastrointestinal tract of poultry favored microflora that have rapid growth and can adhering to the mucosal wall. The caeca are ideal habitats for diverse bacteria with effect on the host nutrition and health. Antibiotics in poultry for therapeutic and as growth promotor can decrease the number of most susceptible bacterial communities and enhance the growth of resistant bacteria. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of garlic and onion extract chitosan nanoparticles on the intestinal microflora of Rainbow Rooster Indigenous Chicken in Kenya in which a total of 18 chickens were used with 2 chickens drawn from each of the 9 groups and both caecum and jejunum content sampled with a total of 36 samples. The chickens were treated with Chitosan and Aqueous extracts of Garlic and Onion (CHIAGO), Chitosan with total Phenol, Ajoene rich extract (CHITPA) nanoparticles, and Chitosan Solution (CHISOLN) all at 5% and 10% and 1 g and 0.5 g Fosbac (Antibiotic) were applied orally to the chickens twice a week for 8 weeks. About 1.5 g of caecum and jejunum contents for micro-organisms Escherichia coli (E. coli), Salmonella typhi (S. typhi) , Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni), Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus), Bifidobactreum bifidium (B. bifidium) from caecum and L. acidophilus from jejunum were analyzed at 8th week of the treatment using conventional PCR to optimize bacteria 16S rRNA gene specific bands and qPCR for the 16S rRNA gene copy numbers was determined. Lactobacillus acidophilus , E. coli , S. typhi, C. jejuni from caecum and L. acidophilus from jejunum indicated specific bands in 1.2% agarose gel. The qPCR revealed primers efficiency in most of the assay with exception of the jejunum L. acidophilus assay. There was a significant differences among the treatments for L. acidophilus ( p E. coli ( p S. typhi ( p C. jejuni ( p L. acidophilus at ( p ≤ 0.0001) for 16S rRNA gene copy numbers µg/µl DNA in 1.5 g of caecum and jejunum content. The results indicated normal percentage for caecum L. acidophilus to jejunium L. acidophilus at 96.65–87.63%, 90.27% to 35% was shown in L. acidophilus to E. coli, L. acidophilus to C. jejuni was 99.97% to 95.94% and low percentage of L. acidophilus to S. typhi 16S rRNA gene copy numbers after the treatment with CHITPA and CHIAGO. Garlic and onion extract chitosan nanoparticles prepared revealed the presence of selected commensal bacteria and acceptable percentage for caecum L. acidophilus to E. coli and C. jejuni in intestine of Rainbow Rooster Chicken.

Genomic and Pathogenic Characteristics of Virulent Newcastle Disease Virus Isolated from Chicken in Live Bird Markets and Backyard Flocks in Kenya.

Newcastle disease (ND) causes significant economic losses in the poultry industry in developing countries. In Kenya, despite rampant annual ND outbreaks, implementation of control strategies is hampered by a lack of adequate knowledge on the circulating and outbreak causing-NDV strains. This study reports the first complete genome sequences of NDV from backyard chicken in Kenya. The results showed that all three isolates are virulent, as assessed by the mean death time (MDT) and intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) in specific antibody negative (SAN) embryonated eggs and 10-day-old chickens, respectively. Also, the polybasic amino acid sequence at the fusion-protein cleavage site had the motif 112RRQKRFV118. Histopathological findings in four-week-old SPF chicken challenged with the NDV isolates KE001, KE0811, and KE0698 showed multiple organ involvement at five days after infection with severe effects seen in lymphoid tissues and blood vessels. Analysis of genome sequences obtained from the three isolates showed that they were 15192 base pair (bp) in length and had genomic features consistent with other NDV strains, the functional sites within the coding sequence being highly conserved in the sequence of the three isolates. Amino acid residues and substitutions in the structural proteins of the three isolates were similar to the newly isolated Tanzanian NDV strain (Mbeya/MT15). A similarity matrix showed a high similarity of the isolates to NDV strains of class II genotype V (89–90%) and subgenotype Vd (95–97%). Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that the three isolates are closely related to NDV genotype V strains but form a distinct cluster together with NDV strains from the East African countries of Uganda and Tanzania to form the newly characterized subgenotype Vd. Our study provides the first description of the genomic and pathological characteristics of NDV of subgenotype Vd and lays a baseline in understanding the evolutionary dynamics of NDV and, in particular, Genotype V. This information will be useful in the development of specific markers for detection of viruses of genotype V and generation of genotype matched vaccines.

FATTY ACID AND AMINO ACID PROFILE OF INDIGENOUS CLUSTER ECOTYPES OF KENYAN FREERANGING CHICKEN

An experiment was conducted to determine amino acid and fatty acid profile of indigenous chicken reared in Kenya under a free range feeding system. Five cocks of each ecotype were purchased, slaughtered and transported to JKUAT and Durban University of Technology, within 12 and 24 hours respectively in an insulated box containing ice. Amino acid profile was estimated using Pico Tag by hydrolysis with acid for 24 hours, derivatized and analyzed by reverse phase HPLC. Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) were synthesized by a direct/one-step extraction transesterification method. FAME were then separated and quantified using gas chromatography. The amino acid and fatty acid profile of indigenous chicken in Kenya was affected by the ecotype as well as the part of the chicken (breast or thigh). The amino acid profile of experimental chicken revealed values higher than the RDA. The ratio of ꞷ-6:ꞷ-3 though higher than 4:1, demonstrated that the consumption of indigenous free ranging chicken meat is likely to give favourable health outcomes.

Quantity and Functionality of Protein Fractions Isolated from 3 Ecotypes of Indigenous Chicken in Kenya

<p><em>The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the cluster ecotype and the part of chicken on nutritional composition, and functionality of sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins that are most relevant to the technological features of chicken meat. Over 50 chickens from each ecotype cluster purchased, slaughtered and the meat stored under refrigeration at -20<sup>o</sup>C and later on transferred in cooler box on ice and flown to South Africa, at the Durban University of Technology. Protein fractions were extracted with a cocktail of Sodium Chloride buffer (50mM NaCl, 50mM Tris HCl; 75mM DTT and 1mM EDTA at pH 7) and quantified by Bradford method. One dimensional Sodium Dodecyl Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS PAGE) was applied to separate protein fractions. Emulsifying capacity, emulsifying stability, solubility, and in vitro digestibility were determined on the total protein isolates. Significant differences in band expressions were recorded for the myofibrillar and the sarcoplasmic proteins. The three ecotypes had high quality proteins with all the limiting and essential amino acids at concentrations higher than FAO/WHO recommended daily allowance for adults and children. Distinct protein bands at larger molecular weight proteins >100 kDa, corresponding to Myosin Heavy Chain, medium fractions 75 kDa and 45 kDa and even lower molecular weight fraction <25 kDa were present in the chicken breast and the thighs. It concludes that Indigenous chicken protein isolates’ nutritional and functional properties are affected by part of chicken and ecotype clusters. </em></p>

Stinging nettle and neem enhance antibody response to local killed and imported live infectious bursal disease vaccines in indigenous chicken in Kenya

Immune responses are critical for protection of chickens from infectious bursal disease (IBD). In this study, the antibody response-enhancing effect of drinking water supplementation of 1% stinging nettle and neem on different IBD vaccines and vaccination regimes was evaluated, using 36 (n = 36) specific antibody negative indigenous chicks. The birds were allocated into 3 groups as follows: 1A-C, 2A-C, and 3A-B, while group 3C acted as the unvaccinated non-supplemented control. A local inactivated K1 and imported live attenuated D78 IBD vaccines were given to groups 1A-C and 3A-B at 14 and 28 d of age, respectively. A combination of K1 and D78 vaccines was given 30 d apart to groups 2A and 2B (D78 at 14 and 21 d and K1 at 44 d of age) and on the same d to group 2C at 14 and 28 d of age. Stinging nettle was given in water to groups 1B, 2B, and 2C, and neem to groups 1C, 2A, and 3B. Birds were bled weekly and immune responses monitored using indirect ELISA. Both neem and stinging nettle had antibody response-enhancing effects in groups 1B and 1C, receiving the local inactivated K1 vaccine. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) in antibody titers between groups 1A and 2C. Stinging nettle induced earlier onset of high antibody responses in group 2C and persistent titers (>3.8 log10) from the third week in group 2B. Imported live D78 vaccine induced higher antibody titers compared to the local inactivated K1 vaccine. Groups 2B and 2C receiving a combination of the local K1 and imported live attenuated D78 vaccines had the highest antibody titers. Adoption of stinging nettle supplementation and a prime-boost program involving use of a local virus isolates-derived vaccine is recommended.

Genetic and phenotypic parameters for feed efficiency in indigenous chicken in Kenya

Abstract This study aims to determine the genetic and phenotypic parameters of net feed efficiency (NFE) traits namely Residual feed intake (RFI), residual gain (RG), and residual intake and gain (RIG) along the growth curve of indigenous chicken in Kenya. Feed intake and body weight data was collected on 107 experimental birds on a daily and weekly basis, respectively from 77 days to 140 days of age. Random regression sire model was used for analysis, fitting Legendre polynomials as basis function. Sex, hatch group and interaction between sex and cluster constituted fixed effects in the model while additive genetic and permanent environmental effects were fitted as random variables. A heteroscedastic residual variance was modelled by grouping the test period into nine classes. The orders of polynomial fit for additive genetic and permanent environmental effects in the model were 4 and 5; 3 and 4; and 5 and 5; for RFI, RG and RIG, respectively. The additive genetic variances for RFI and RG were higher at the beginning of the trajectory but declined as the test period progressed while their respective phenotypic and permanent environment variances increased with age. Consequently, moderate (0.34) and high (0.77) heritability estimates for RFI and RG, respectively, were observed during the early test period and thereafter decreased to 0.03 for RFI and 0.01 for RG. Additive genetic variance for RIG increased across the test period while phenotypic and permanent environment variances declined. This resulted in high estimates of heritability and permanent environmental variance as a proportion of phenotypic variance of 0.69 and 0.98, respectively, at the extremes of the trajectory. At mid-point of test period, low estimates of heritability and permanent environmental variance as a proportion of phenotypic variance of 0.13 and 0.19, respectively were observed. The heritability estimates indicate possible selective breeding for NFE given the moderate estimates (0.23–0.34) for RFI, moderate to high estimates (0.30–0.77) for RG and high estimates (0.49–0.98) for RIG. However, caution has to be taken when selecting for RG and RIG given the extreme heritability estimates resulting from statistical and biological factors. Genetic correlations were high to moderate and positive (0.99 to 0.32) between records at early and mid-ages (77–105 days), but high and negative (−0.99 to −0.45) between early (77 days) and late ages (112–140 days). Selection for NFE at growth inflection point (77 days) would result in a favourable correlated response at point of maximum growth (105 days) but would be associated with unfavourable response at point of asymptotic growth (140 days) as birds are approaching sexual maturity. Given the high standard errors for the genetic parameters estimates in this study, there is need for further analyses prior to selection for feed efficiency indigenous chicken.

Genetic diversity of indigenous chickens from selected areas in Kenya using microsatellite markers.

In this study, indigenous chickens were collected from eight different regions in Kenya and kept at InCIP-Egerton University. These were studied using eighteen microsatellite markers to determine genetic variation. Statistics related to genetic variation were estimated using GenALEx6. Mean percentage polymorphic loci (PPL) was 96.71% and 4% genetic variance (p ≥ 0.003) was seen between the eight populations. MCW0123 marker had the highest genetic variance of 13% among populations (p ≥ 0.003) at 95% CI. Mean He ranged from 0.351 ± 0.031 (SIB) to 0.434 ± 0.022 (BM) with a grand mean He of 0.399 ± 0.011 across the populations using the microsatellite markers. Nei’s genetic distance ranged from 0.016 (SIB and WP) to 0.126 (NR and SIB). DARwin6.501 analysis software was used to draw the population dendrogram and two major population clusters were observed, also seen with PCoA. This study found a lot of genetic variation and relatedness within and among populations. Based on the phylogenetic tree result, it is concluded that the clustering of the chicken populations in the present study is not based on geographical proximity. The microsatellite markers used in this study were suitable for the measurement of the genetic biodiversity and relationship of Kenyan chicken populations. These results can therefore serve as an initial step to plan the conservation of indigenous chickens in Kenya.

Antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolates from small scale and backyard chicken in Kenya.

BackgroundThermophilic Campylobacter species are a major cause of bacterial foodborne diarrhoea in humans worldwide. Poultry and their products are the predominant source for human campylobacteriosis. Resistance of Campylobacter to antibiotics is increasing worldwide, but little is known about the antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter isolated from chicken in Kenya. In this study, 35 suspected Campylobacter strains isolated from faeces and cloacal swabs of chicken were tested for their susceptibility to seven antibiotics using a broth microdilution assay and molecular biological investigations.ResultsOverall, DNA of thermophilic Campylobacter was identified in 53 samples by PCR (34 C. jejuni, 18 C. coli and one mix of both species) but only 35 Campylobacter isolates (31 C. jejuni and 4 C. coli) could be re-cultivated after transportation to Germany. Isolates were tested for their susceptibility to antibiotics using a broth microdilution assay. Additionally, molecular biological detection of antibiotic resistance genes was carried out. C. jejuni isolates showed a high rate of resistance to nalidixic acid, tetracycline and ciprofloxacin of 77.4, 71.0 and 71.0 %, respectively. Low resistance (25.8 %) was detected for gentamicin and chloramphenicol. Multidrug resistance in C. jejuni could be detected in 19 (61.3 %) isolates. Resistance pattern of C. coli isolates was comparable. Resistance to ciprofloxacin was confirmed by MAMA–PCR and PCR–RFLP in all phenotypically resistant isolates. The tet(O) gene was detected only in 54.5 % of tetracycline resistant C. jejuni isolates. The tet(A) gene, which is also responsible for tetracycline resistance, was found in 90.3 % of C. jejuni and in all C. coli isolates. Thirteen phenotypically erythromycin-resistant isolates could not be characterised by using PCR–RFLP and MAMA–PCR.ConclusionsTo the best of our knowledge, this study is the first report about resistance to antibiotics in thermophilic Campylobacter originating from chicken in Kenya. Campylobacter spp. show a high level of resistance to ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid and tetracycline but also a remarkable one to chloramphenicol and gentamicin and they are multidrug resistant. Resistance to antibiotics is a global public health concern. In Kenya, resistance surveillance needs further attention in the future. Efforts to establish at least a National Laboratory with facilities for performing phenotypic and genotypic characterization of thermophilic Campylobacter is highly recommended.

Non-genetic sources of variation and temporal variability in growth and feed efficiency traits among phylogenetically distinct clusters of indigenous chicken in Kenya.

This study aims to investigate the influence of non-genetic factors on feed efficiency in indigenous chicken. Residual feed intake (RFI), residual gain (RG) and residual intake and gain (RIG) were used as measures of feed efficiency. Feed intake and body weight data were collected on 107 experimental birds on a daily and weekly basis, respectively, from ages 11 to 20weeks. A general linear model was fitted to determine the effect of sex, cluster, genotype and hatch group on mean performance and to assess temporal variation across clusters. The overall mean performance for daily gain (ADG), daily feed intake (ADFI), weekly metabolic body weight (MBW), RFI, RG and RIG was 10.38g/day, 133.01g/day, 164.12g/day, 0.00 (±14.23), 0.00 (±1.83) and 0.00 (±14.64), respectively. Sex significantly influenced variation in ADG and RG while hatch group influenced all traits except ADFI. Cluster and genotype had no effect on the traits. Interaction between sex and cluster significantly influenced ADFI, RFI and RIG. There was a significant temporal variation within and among clusters resulting in re-ranking of the phylogenetic groups in efficiency across the test period. Results indicate that growth and feed efficiency traits are influenced by non-genetic factors which should be accounted for, to reduce bias and improve accuracy of performance evaluations in the indigenous chicken.

Application of risk-rated profit model functions in estimation of economic values for indigenous chicken breeding

The economic values for productive (egg number, average daily gain, live weight, and mature weight) and functional (fertility, hatchability, broodiness, survival rate, feed intake, and egg weight) traits were derived for three production systems utilizing indigenous chicken in Kenya. The production systems considered were free-range, semi-intensive, and intensive system and were evaluated based on fixed flock size and fixed feed resource production circumstances. A bio-economic model that combined potential performances, feeding strategies, optimum culling strategies, farmer's preferences and accounted for imperfect knowledge concerning risk attitude of farmers and economic dynamics was employed to derive risk-rated economic values. The economic values for all the traits were highest in free-range system under the two production circumstances and decreased with level of intensification. The economic values for egg number, average daily gain, live weight, fertility, hatchability, and survival rate were positive while those for mature weight, broodiness, egg weight, and feed intake were negative. Generally, the economic values estimated under fixed feed resource production circumstances were higher than those derived under fixed flock size. The difference between economic values estimated using simple (traditional) and risk-rated profit model functions ranged from -47.26% to +67.11% indicating that inclusion of risks in estimation of economic values is important. The results of this study suggest that improvement targeting egg number, average daily gain, live weight, fertility, hatchability, and survival rate would have a positive impact on profitability of indigenous chicken production in Kenya.

Effect of Dietary Crude Protein Levels on Egg Production, Hatchability and Post-Hatch Offspring Performance of Indigenous Chickens

2 Abstract: Indigenous chickens in Kenya are estimated to be 21.5 million and are found in all the ecological zones in the country. They are 75% of the poultry population and produce 46 and 58% of the egg and meat, respectively. These levels of production are comparatively low compared to their numbers. The low productivity of indigenous chickens in Kenya and other parts of the world is partly attributed to poo r management practices, in particular the lack of proper healthcare, poor nutrition and housing. This study was designed to determine the effects of dietary protein levels on egg production, hatchability and post-hatch offspring feed intake, feed efficiency and growth rate of indigenous chickens. Seventy two hens averaging 46 weeks in age, were offered four diets formulated from similar ingredients but differing in protein levels: 100, 120, 140 and 170 g CP/kg DM. Diets were randomly allocated to hens such that each diet had nine replicates each consisting of two hens. The hens were housed in battery cages and diets offered ad-libitum. Laying percentage, egg weight and feed intake were measured over an 8-week period. There was an increase (p 0.05) at 120 and 140 g CP/kg DM. The laying percentage of hens offered 170 g CP/kg DM was lower (p 0.05) on offspring feed intake (51-56 g), live weight gain (6.5 -8.5 g / day) and feed conversion efficiency (0.13-0.15). It is, therefore, concluded that the dietary crude protein requirement for laying indigenous hens is about 120 g CP/kg and maternal dietary protein level has no effect on hatchability and post-hatch offspring feed intake, feed efficiency and growth rate. The findings will help in the formulation of indigenous chicken layer diet with the appropriate protein content.

Indigenous Chicken Production in Kenya: A Review

2 Abstract: Indigenous chickens in Kenya are about 22 million and are kept by 90% of the rural communities in small flocks of up to 30 birds mainly under free range system. The industry is flexible and does not require a lot of space. When people retire or are retrenched they easily start poultry keeping. Distinct indigenous chicken ecotypes have been identified and named. The names are phenotypic descriptions of the birds. The names used to describe the common phenotypes in Kenya are-frizzled feathered, naked neck, barred feathered, feathered shanks, bearded and dwarf sized. The local ecotypes of the chickens vary in body size, conformation, plumage colour and performance. The birds are hardy and thrive under a harsh environment with minimal inputs. They get most of their feed from scavenging and may occasionally benefit from kitchen and other household wastes. Eggs and chicken meat contribute to the protein nutrition of the rural population thus alleviating malnutrition. Sales of eggs and meat earn and diversify incomes for rural households especially among women and children who control benefits accruing from the enterprise. It has also helped those affected and infected by HIV Aids because it does not involve a lot of hard work. Indigenous chicken in Kenya are about 76 % of the total poultry population and produce about 55 and 47% of the total meat and eggs respectively. Productivity is low due to factors which include genotype, poor nutrition, diseases and management. Feed supplementation, provision of housing and disease control was found to improve growth rate and egg production.