Chicken Portions Research Articles

A Food System Approach for Sustainable Food-Based Dietary Guidelines: An Exploratory Scenario Study on Dutch Animal Food Products.

This study explores interconnections between food consumption and production of animal (by-)products in different food system scenarios within the scope of Dutch Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG). For this scenario study, a Microsoft Excel model was created that include seven scenarios with different quantities of eggs, milk, cheese, beef cattle, broilers, and pigs as input. Number of animals, intake of energy, animal protein, saturated fatty acids (SFAs), trans-fatty acids (TFAs), salt, greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs), and land use (LU) were calculated and compared with current consumption and reference values. Based on the concept of eating the whole animal, every recommended lean, unprocessed portion of beef comes along with a non-recommended portion of beef (two portions for pork, 0.5 portion for broilers). The reference values for SFAs, TFAs, and salt were not exceeded if the intake of meat is limited to 410 g/week. The scenarios with recommended 450 mL semi-skimmed milk and 40 g/day low-fat cheese results in 36 g/day of butter as by-product, exceeding its acceptable intake three times. The near-vegetarian scenario with recommended amounts of eggs, milk, and cheese, includes only a portion of beef/calf per 6 days and a portion of chicken per 9 weeks as by-products. This scenario more than halves the GHGE and LU. Finally, the scenario that included the maximum recommended amounts of animal products is reachable with half the current size of Dutch livestock. This conceptual framework may be useful in the discussion on how future sustainable FBDG can incorporate a more food system-based approach.

Plant Based Foods to Improve Metabolic Health in Prediabetics – Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

ObjectivesThe study will investigate the effectiveness of an Asian food based intervention to improve metabolic health, notably glucose homeostasis in a prediabetic population. MethodsA parallel design randomized controlled trial will be conducted in Chinese prediabetics aged 45–75 years, BMI 19.5–32 kg/m2. Prediabetes defined according to the American Diabetes Association guideline: fasting blood glucose 5.6–6.9 mmol/l or hemoglobin A1c 5.7–6.4% or 2-hr oral glucose tolerance test 7.8–11.0 mmol/l. Major exclusion criteria were: smoking, food allergies or intolerances to common food ingredients, dietary restrictions, sustained hypertension (>160/95 mmHg), history of metabolic, cardiac, liver or kidney disorders, thyroid dysfunction and recent weight loss. The dietary intervention will last for 16 weeks, where volunteers will consume 2 specially formulated main meals per day, provided as pre-cooked, frozen, ready-meals (approximately 400 kcal each). The treatment group (TG) meals will be prepared with legumes, low GI rice or noodles, blended vegetable oil and added mixed herbs and spices. The control group (CG) meals, isocaloric, will consist of a portion of chicken, a portion of vegetables, medium to high GI rice or noodles and negligible herbs and spices. The male volunteers will be provided additional 100 kcal snacks containing either wholegrain cereals and nuts/seeds (TG) or refined cereal snack products (CG). The daily meals and snacks for rest of the day will be chosen freely, while a dietitian limits the total average calorie consumption to ensure around 5% weight loss in both groups. The effects of dietary interventions on metabolic health will be assessed at every 4 week intervals. The primary outcome measures will include several markers of glucose homeostasis (including HbA1c, fasting glucose, fasting insulin and a 2-hr oral glucose tolerance test [OGTT]). The secondary outcomes will include lipid profile, fructosamine, adiponectin, markers of oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. ResultsThe recruitment for the study has been completed (n = 256 screened, n = 123 suitable). The dietary intervention will commence in March 2021 and expected to be completed in July 2021. ConclusionsN/A. Funding SourcesJointly funded by the National University of Singapore, Agency of Science Technology and Research, Singapore, and Wilmar International Limited.

KESESUAIAN PORSI LAUK DAGING AYAM YANG DITERIMA PADA MAKANAN BIASA

Large portions are often one thing when serving food, especially in food serving. It is still an advantage and lack of portion because there is no right size in food processing. food consumption must be in accordance with the standard portion determined by the hospital nutrition installation. large portions will affect the nutrients contained in a food. This study aims to determine the suitability of standard portions of side dishes of chicken meat received in ordinary food at Sanjiwani Hospital Gianyar Regency. This study was a descriptive observational study with a crossectional approach. This research was conducted for 3 days in April 2019 at Sanjiwani Hospital Gianyar Regency. The number of samples is 30 servings. The proportion of portions served is measured by the food weighing method for 3 days. The results showed that the standard suitability of the portion of chicken received at Sanjiwani General Hospital in Gianyar Regency was largely incompatible, namely 83.3%, while those in accordance with the standard portion were 16.6%.

The contribution of a portion of meat, fish and eggs for climate change

Introduction: The shift in dietary patterns of citizens will have a larger environmental footprint, in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and the use of natural resources. For example, diets high in milk and meat, particularly from ruminants, is associated with increasing emissions of methane from enteric fermentation, carbon dioxide from deforestation for pasture, and nitrous oxide from feed production. Objectives: For a more sustainable consumption the aim of this study was to quantify and compare the contribution to climate change of one portion of what you eat overall coming from the shelf of Food Wheel related with meat, poultry, fish and eggs to achieve a healthy, balanced diet. Methods: Life Cycle Assessment, based on ISO 14040/44 standards was the methodology used. The inventory analysis and, subsequently, the impact analysis were performed using the software SimaPro 8.5. The method chosen for the environmental impact assessment was IPCC 2013 GWP 100a. Results: The results show that a mackerel (fish) portion presents the lower ecological footprint followed by a portion of codfish, chicken, pork tenderloin, eggs, lobster and cow tenderloin, respectively. Conclusions: The main conclusion of this study is that life cycle impact assessment, using the IPCC 2013 GWP 100a, is a method that can help the people to choose the best food for a meal that is more environmentally friendly helping to mitigate the climate change.

A Baseline Quantitative Survey of Campylobacter spp. on Retail Chicken Portions and Carcasses in Metropolitan Perth, Western Australia

Limited baseline retail surveys have been published over the past 10 years on Campylobacter in Australian chicken meat. This study generates quantitative baseline data to assist in risk assessment and management strategies. Raw poultry products (n = 315) were purchased for a year (2016-2017) from retail supermarkets in metropolitan Perth, Western Australia (WA). Campylobacter concentration was determined by a direct plating method in all samples, whereas in 58.7% (185/315) of the samples, testing was done using enrichment culture in conjunction with direct plating according to standard methods. Using direct plating, Campylobacter were recovered from 23.8% (75/315) of the samples, whereas 53.7% (100/186) of the samples were positive for Campylobacter using enrichment culture (∼1 g). Campylobacter counts revealed that 76.2% of the chicken portions and carcasses were contaminated with <1 log10 colony-forming units (CFU)/g, and 18.7% of the samples were contaminated with ≥2 log10 CFU/g. The average Campylobacter concentration among 315 tested chicken meat samples was 1.82 log10 CFU/g (±standard deviation (SD) 2.26 log10 CFU/g). The likelihood of Campylobacter recovery by direct plating from chicken products with skin on was significantly higher (odds ratio [OR] 4.4; p < 0.0001) than product forms with skin off. The highest counts of Campylobacter were associated with chicken wings (1.94 log10 CFU/g [±SD 2.26 log10 CFU/g]). There were some significant variations in Campylobacter counts based on the interaction between product forms and sourcing poultry processing establishment. This study provides the first published research on Campylobacter status in retail chicken meat in Australia since almost 10 years. Results from this study add to the knowledge on the assessment of microbial safety of the WA poultry chain, and can be used as an input for future development of quantitative risk assessment of Campylobacter.

THE CASE FOR “SUFFICIENT SCIENCE”: South African Poultry Association v The Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Case Number: 39597/2016 (21/9/2016) (Gauteng Division, Pretoria)

This discussion examines the role of the “sufficient science” requirement as the basis of a phytosanitary measure as postulated by the World Trade Organisation (hereinafter, “the WTO”) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (hereinafter “the SPS”), in South African law through the avenue of the decision of the court in South African Poultry Association v The Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Case Number: 39597/2016 (21/9/2016) (Gauteng Division, Pretoria) hereinafter “SAPA”). This case was prompted by the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries’ promulgation of new regulations on permissible brine limits for individual chicken portions. These new regulations were promulgated in response to concerns that some chicken producers had used excessive amounts of brine, which compromised the quality of the chicken consumed by consumers. The new regulations capped the permissible brine limit on chicken at 15%. Consequently, the South African Poultry Association then approached the High Court challenging, inter alia, the lawfulness of the permissible brine limit as stipulated in the new regulations on the grounds that there was no scientific basis for the brine limits; and in the alternative, that the scientific basis relied on for the determination of the brining limits was fundamentally flawed. To this end, this paper argues that the court misdirected itself by failing to determine that the newly minted brine limit on poultry meat in South Africa constitutes a “phytosanitary measure” in the manner contemplated by the SPS. Secondly, the court flouted its obligation under the Constitution to ensure that the evaluation of the new brine regulations is in line with South Africa’s international obligations under the SPS and the instruments of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. On the back of this finding, the paper argues that the brine limit was incorrectly held to be valid because it was established in the absence of “sufficient science” thereby contravening Article 2.2, Article 5.1 and Article 5.2 of the SPS. Thirdly, the court neglected to examine whether the new brine limit was rationally connected to its risk assessments as required by Article 5.1 of the SPS. This finding invariably means that the new brine limit is presumed not to be based on scientific principles and to be maintained without sufficient scientific evidence. In the alternative, it is argued that the scientific process followed by the respondent could be seen as an exception to the “sufficient science” rule if the respondent argues that they pursued a precautionary approach in good faith, as a responsible government faced with a situation plagued by scientific uncertainty and a clear and imminent threat to public health and safety. Lastly, this paper argues that the court correctly held that the process followed by the respondent in establishing the views of the scientific community is in line with the SPS. It must be borne in mind that the discussion to follow is focused on the approach the court should have followed according to the SPS and it is not, an enquiry on whether the decision of the court is correct under the precepts of administrative law in South Africa.

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella isolated from broiler whole production process in four provinces of China

Objective: To determine the prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella isolated from broiler production process in 4 provinces of China. Methods: Using convenience sampling method, 238 sample sites from broiler whole production process were chosen in Henan, Jiangsu, Heilongjiang and Shandong provinces in 2012. A total of 11 592 samples were collected and detected to analyze prevalence baseline, including 2 090 samples from breeding chicken farms and hatcheries, 1 421 samples from broiler farms, 5 610 samples from slaughterhouses and 2 471 samples from distribution and retail stores. All Salmonella strains were isolated through selective enrichment, and were serotyped according to Kauffmann-White scheme. The antimicrobial susceptibilities of selected Salmonella strains were determined by the broth microdilution method and fourteen antimicrobial agents were examined. Results: During incubation course, the average prevalence of Salmonella was 5.5% in feces of breeding hens, feces of chicks, and hatching eggs, 123 Salmonella strains were isolated. During cultivation course, the prevalence of Salmonella was 8.0% in feces from broiler farms, soil, feed, and workers, 114 Salmonella strains were isolated. During slaughter course, the prevalence of Salmonella was 24.9% in swabs pre-slaughter, dressed broiler carcasses, pre-cooled broiler carcasses, water from precooling pool, cutter and chipping boards, frozen chicken portions, and workers, 1 438 Salmonella strains were isolated. During distribution and sale course, the prevalence of Salmonella was 20.9% in transport carts, frozen chicken portions, retail chicken portions and workers, 551 Salmonella strains were isolated. The dominant Salmonella serotypes were Salmonella Enteritidis (n=1 229) and Salmonella Indiana (n=621). Among 1 231 examined strains, 97.2% Salmonella isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial, 69.9% Salmonella strains were multi-drug resistant isolates. Conclusion: Our findings indicated that Salmonella contamination was common and serious in commercial broiler whole production process in China, especially in the course of defeathering, precooling and selling. The environment of broiler farm is the important source of Salmonella contamination. Additionally, antibiotic resistance of Salmonella was serious for common antimicrobials and multi-drug resistant strains existed widespread, which can pose potential risk on public health and clinical therapy.

Salmonella enterica subsp. salamae serovar Sofia, a prevalent serovar in Australian broiler chickens, is also capable of transient colonisation in layers

ABSTRACT1. Salmonella enterica subsp. salamae serovar sofia (S. sofia) is a prevalent strain of Salmonella in Australian broilers and has been isolated from broiler chickens, litter, dust, as well as pre- and post-processing carcasses, and retail chicken portions but has never been reported in commercial Australian layers or eggs.2. To investigate whether a S. sofia isolate from a broiler could colonise layers, one-month-old Hyline brown layers were orally inoculated with S. sofia and colonisation was monitored for 2–4 weeks.3. Overall, 30–40% of the chickens shed S. sofia from the cloaca between 6 and 14 d post-inoculation which then declined to 10% by d 21. Necropsy at 2 weeks post-inoculation revealed 80% of birds harboured S. sofia in the caecum, whilst, by 4 weeks post-infection, no chickens were colonised with S. sofia in the gastrointestinal tract, liver or spleen. Additionally, no aerosol ‘bird to bird’ transfer was evident.4. This study demonstrated that laying hens can be colonised by broiler-derived S. sofia; however, this colonisation was transient, reaching a peak at 14 d post-inoculation, and was completely cleared by 28 d post-inoculation. The transience of colonisation of S. sofia in layers could be a factor explaining why S. sofia has never been detected when screening for Salmonella serotypes found in Australian laying hens or eggs.

On-line separation and sorting of chicken portions using a robust vision-based intelligent modelling approach

One of the major issues in food industry is automatic sorting of chicken portions. In the present study, we propose a new on-line method based on combined machine vision techniques and linear and nonlinear classifiers to categorise chicken portions automatically. Mechanical framework, conveyor belt, electrical and control units, lighting box, charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, separating unit, and air compressor are included in the study proposed system. Major classes of chicken portions can be categorised as breast, leg, fillet, wing, and drumstick. Imaging procedure in the study is carried out using CCD camera and a computer system. Geometrical aspects, colour, and textural features are extracted in the next step using the study dataset, so the best ones could be selected accordingly through Chi-Square methodology. Partial least squares regression (PLSR), linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and artificial neural network (ANN) respectively are employed to classify the data. Considering total accuracy level of PLSR, LDA and ANN obtained in the study, results indicated better performance level of ANN compared to linear models. The machine vision algorithm developed here together with the ANN classifier were evaluated on a sorting machine to separate test samples using separating units in the on-line mode. The processing time of proposed method is estimated as 15 ms for each image. The overall accuracy in maximum speed of conveyor, 0.2 m s−1, was obtained 93 percent that is appropriate in real-time applications. The total rate of processing and sorting chicken portions was also measured as approximately 2800 samples per hour.

Modeling the Effect of Inoculum Size on the Thermal Inactivation of &lt;i&gt;Salmonella&lt;/i&gt; Typhimurium to Elimination in Ground Chicken Thigh Meat

A study was undertaken to investigate and model the effect of inoculum size on the thermal inactivation of Salmonella to elimination in ground chicken by conduction heating. To develop the model, ground chicken thigh meat portions (0.76 cm3) in microcentrifuge tubes were inoculated with 2.0, 3.6, or 5.2 log of a single strain of Salmonella Typhimurium followed by cooking for 0 to 10 min at 52 to 100°C in a heating block. To validate the model, the ground chicken portions were inoculated with 2.8 or 4.4 log of S. Typhimurium followed by cooking for 0 to 9 min at 55 to 97°C. An automated, whole sample enrichment, miniature most probable number (MPN) method with a lower limit of detection of one Salmonella cell per portion was used for enumeration. The MPN data were used to develop (n = 851) and validate (n = 256) a multiple layer feedforward neural network model with two hidden layers of two nodes each. Model performance was evaluated using the acceptable prediction zone (APZ) method. The proportion of residuals in an APZ (pAPZ) from -1 log (fail-safe) to 0.5 log (fail-dangerous) was 0.945 (804/851) for dependent data and 0.945 (242/256) for independent data for interpolation. A pAPZ ≥ 0.7 indicated that model predictions had acceptable bias and accuracy. Thus, the model was successfully validated. The time for elimination of Salmonella at 58°C was 5.6, 7.1, and 8.7 min for inoculum sizes of 2.0, 3.6 and 5.2 log per portion, respectively. This relationship was observed for all cooking temperatures and among all inoculum sizes investigated indicating that inoculum size was an important independent variable to include in the model.

Consumer Attitudes Toward Storing and Thawing Chicken and Effects of the Common Thawing Practices on Some Quality Characteristics of Frozen Chicken.

In this study, a survey was conducted to both evaluate the consumers’ general attitudes for purchasing and storing the raw chicken and determine the thawing practices used for defrosting frozen chicken at home. About 75% of the consumers indicated purchasing chicken meat at least once a week or more. Furthermore, the majority (82.16%) of those who stored at least a portion of the raw chicken stated freezing the raw chicken meat at home. Freezing the chicken meat was considered to have no effect on the quality by 43.49% of the consumers while 56.51% thought that freezing had either negative or positive effects on the quality. The survey study indicated that top five most commonly used thawing practices included thawing on the kitchen counter, thawing in the refrigerator, thawing in the warm water, thawing in the microwave, and thawing under tap water. In addition, an experimental study was conducted to determine the effects of these most commonly used thawing practices on some quality characteristics of the chicken meat including pH, drip loss, cooking loss, color analysis and textural profile analysis. Although, L* value for thawing on the kitchen counter was the lowest, after cooking, none of the thawing treatments have a significant effect on the color values. Thawing in the microwave produced the highest drip loss of 3.47% while the lowest drip loss of 0.62% was observed with thawing in the refrigerator. On the other hand, thawing in the microwave and refrigerator caused the lowest cooking loss values of 18.29% and 18.53%, respectively. Nevertheless, there were no significant differences among textural parameter values of the defrosted and then cooked samples using the home based thawing practices, indicating similar quality characteristics among the samples.

Mixed messages in food safety: killing us softly?

Food poisoning affects many thousands of people every year, both in the United Kingdom and around the world. Infections such as Campylobacter are often brought into the home with purchased food and can cause very unpleasant illnesses and, in extreme cases, even be fatal - if cross-contamination occurs. Dr Lisa Ackerley, Visiting Professor of Environmental Health at the University of Salford and Managing Director of Hygiene Audit Systems Ltd, explains the need for a more joined-up approach to science in the food industry and application in the home.Depending on what you read, there are different estimates of the number of peo- ple who suffer from food poisoning every year. According to the Food Standards Agency (FSA), the United Kingdom has more than 850,000 cases of people experiencing food poisoning per year.1 However, in 2001, the FSA Attitudes Survey calculated that there may have been 5.5 million people who had suffered from food poisoning, of which 4.2 million believed their illness was caused outside the home.2 The Second Infectious Intestinal Diseases Study, completed in 2012, put forward a figure of 17 million - around 25% of the UK population - for those who suffered some form of infec- tious Intestinal disease in a year, estimat- ing that for every one case of reported Ill- ness, there were a further 147 unre- ported in the community.2.Food poisoning is almost totally preventable; however, if most people assume that food poisoning comes from restaurants, cafes and fast food outlets, then they may not feel it is necessary to take preventive action in the home. Andrew Wadge, Chief Scientist at the FSA stated, 'People don't like to admit that the germs might have come from their own home but it's a common myth to think that food poi- soning only comes from a dodgy takeaway'.4We know that infections such as Campylobacter occur at a rate of over 64,000 confirmed cases per year,5 many of which are sporadic In nature. It is highly likely that some of these cases are caused by people poisoning themselves in their own homes through poor hygiene practices, possibly while handling chicken. The most recent FSA survey identified Campylobacter In 65% of retail chickens, and It Is estimated that 60%- 80% of cases of Campylobacter can be attributed to chicken.1The FSA's strategy to reduce food poi- soning aims to reduce Campylobacter con- tamination of foods during production and processing, but also includes the intention to Improve public awareness and the use of messages about good food hygiene practices at home.5 The FSA's vision In relation to consumers In their revised strategy to reduce disease from Campylobacter was 'That more consum- ers adopt as standard domestic behav- iours that reduce the risk of infection from the storage, handling and cooking of foods, including raw poultry'. In the revised strategy, there is consideration of promoting prevention of Campylobacter In Food Safety Week, and working with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as Which? to help spread mes- sages which will include good hygiene practices In the home, and the purchas- ing of less risky products - for example, frozen chicken and skinned chicken portions.7CHANGING BEHAVIOUROf course, changing behaviour Is much more complex than purely educating con- sumers; consideration needs to be given as to what the barriers are to change (e.g. consumers thinking that they are only at risk when they eat outside the home), or thinking that there Is truth In the legend of the 'five second rule'.We need to show that the benefits of changing behaviour will outweigh the costs - for example, in terms of time spent cleaning or behaving In a more hygienic way versus the cost of having food poisoning, or poisoning a family member. Although we are given figures of how much food poisoning costs the country In a year, perhaps the message needs to be applied to individual cases to focus the mind. In the United States, where civil action for food poisoning is more prevalent than in the United Kingdom, fol- lowing the 'Jack in the Box' outbreak, one severely damaged victim of Escherichia coli 0157 : H7 poisoning settled for US$15. …

Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in poultry meat in Qena, Egypt

Aim: To study the prevalence of pathogenic coagulase positive, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in poultry meat and its products. Materials and Methods: A total of 125 poultry samples were collected during 2012 in Qena governorate for presence of pathogenic coagulase positive, methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Samples were taken from freshly slaughtered whole chicken carcasses (25/125), chicken portions (25/125), chicken luncheon (25/125), chicken sausages (25/125) and chicken burgers (25/125). Results: It was observed that 44% (11/25), 52% (13/25), 40% (10/25), 24% (6/25) and 44% (11/25) of bacterial isolates were positive for methicillin-resistance tests for freshly slaughtered whole chicken carcasses, chicken portions, chicken luncheon, chicken sausages and chicken burgers respectively. Higher contamination rate of MRSA was found in raw poultry meat and the lower rate in poultry meat products subjected to heat treatment and preservatives. Conclusion: Poultry meat and its products were considered as an important source of spreading of MRSA in humans. Hence, strict hygienic measures should be taken in poultry slaughter houses and in food preparing establishments.

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM FOR RAW POULTRY PORTIONS

ABSTRACTIn poultry processing plants, the sorting of raw poultry portions into separate containers prior to packaging is performed mostly by human laborers. This sorting method has two problems: labor cost and health hazard due to possible contamination between raw meat and humans. Therefore, an automated sorting system is required to avoid these problems. In this article, we present an automatic portion identification system that uses image processing and a neural network to identify six different chicken portions that are usually preferred by consumers. The proposed rotational invariant system can identify the cut portions regardless of their orientation with an overall correct identification rate of 97.57%. Potentially, the output of the proposed identification system can be used to move robotic arms to physically separate the identified chicken portions into separate containers.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSThis work contributes to the development of an automated sorting system for practical use in poultry processing plants. The presented intelligent identification system is the main part of such an automated system. We train the system in this work to recognize the main chicken portions; however, other portions and other poultry birds can also be identified upon including their portion images in the training phase. This work differs from existing systems, in that it relies totally on the shape and coarse texture of a portion, using images as input data, and discards information like weight or size of the portion. Another advantage is the elimination of the need for using many birds during the development of the system; in fact, training the system can be achieved using only one bird and its portions.

Cuba's Independent Library Movement Reconsidered

The Meaning of Intellectual FreedomLibrarians have traditionally defended freedom, the idea that truth is best assessed by an ongoing, open process weighing all ideas and information, and that libraries exist to foster this process, not to bias its outcome by censorship. Since intellectual is inherently welcoming to new ideas and corrosive of prescriptive tradition, it has come to be associated with the Left, so librarians also tend to identify with that label. But using labels can come to replace thinking, and ideas can turn into mere slogans whose meaning is forgotten.Many librarians naturally want to support both and any regime that calls itself or progressive, but if that regime censors inconvenient information and dissenting viewpoints, the potential conflict between the two loyalties is obvious. In practice, for many, the solution is simply to change our definition of In its revised version, we subconsciously qualify it so that it protects only progressive viewpoints and information, but not regressive ideas and information. We seldom think about the new definition, let alone formulate it in writing; it is a defensive reflex, ready to kick in whenever a leftist government is challenged for censorship.This dichotomy is easy to apply only if all controversial writings group themselves neatly at opposite ends of a Left/Right polarity. Cuban censorship of the non-Marxist Left and of deviationist Marxists along with centrists and the Right, and the condemnation of the Cuban repression by the Socialist International (Socialist International, 2003) suggest that reality is more complicated. But more importantly, such a dichotomy betrays the essential meaning of intellectual freedom. Even the leadership of the Inquisition agreed that there should be complete to propagate truth. If the first defenders of intellectual had proposed it only as a defense for their tribal version of truth, it would have been nothing new. What made it radically new is its granting of also to ideas with which its defenders do not agree. In the words of the ALA Freedom to Read Statement: It is in the public interest ... to make available the widest diversity of views and expressions, including those that are unorthodox, unpopular, or considered dangerous by the majority (ALA, 2004).Freedom only for approved viewpoints is not freedom at all. Redefining it as such repudiates, rather than defends, our traditional professional ideals. We can choose ultimate loyalty to anything labeled left, even when that requires defending censorship, ultimate loyalty to intellectual freedom; and your choice need not be the same as mine. But we cannot simultaneously choose both; and the sooner we recognize this, the sooner we bring clarity to this discussion.Cuba's Economic/Political SituationCuban dissent exists in a context which is far from a worker's paradise: Ever since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Cuba has been going through what it calls the ... energy consumption is drastically reduced, oxen are put to work in the fields, people get around on bicycles, and food rations are slashed to a minimum survival level. Once recognized as one of the best in the Third World, the health care system in Cuba today is such that patients must bring their own bedsheets to the hospital, and surgeons are given one bar of soap per month with which to wash their hands.... In ironic contrast to the living conditions of the locals, tourists in Cuba enjoy the best of accommodations, food, and drink. For the tourist, nothing is lacking.... The ration under the Special Period consists of a piece of bread per person per day, three eggs per week, and a portion of fish or chicken per month. A family of four gets one small bottle of cooking oil four times a year, and milk is available only for children under the age of eight. …

A Baseline Survey of the Microbiological Quality of Chicken Portions and Carcasses at Retail in Two Australian States (2005 to 2006)

Raw poultry products were purchased from the retail market place in two Australian states, New South Wales (n = 549) and South Australia (n = 310). The products sampled on a proportional volume basis were chicken portions with the skin off or skin on, in bulk or tray packs, and whole carcasses. They were collected from butcher shops, supermarkets, and specialty stores from urban areas during the winter (2005) and summer (2006) months. The samples were analyzed to determine the prevalence and concentration of Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter spp. in addition to total viable counts. Salmonella was found in 47.7 and 35.5% of retail chicken samples (35.3 and 21.9% were the less virulent Salmonella Sofia), at mean counts of −1.42 and −1.6 log MPN/cm2 in New South Wales and South Australia, respectively. Campylobacter was found in 87.8 and 93.2% of samples at mean counts of 0.87 and 0.78 log CFU/cm2, respectively. In both states in both seasons, the mean total viable count was 5 log CFU/cm2. On whole birds, E. coli was detected in all winter samples and on 92.9 and 85.7% of summer samples in New South Wales and South Australia, respectively; the log of the geometric mean per square centimeter was 0.5 in winter and slightly lower in summer. On chicken portions, E. coli was detected in around 90% of winter samples in both states, and in summer on 75.1 and 59.6% of samples in New South Wales and South Australia, respectively. The log of the geometric mean CFU per square centimeter for E. coli was 0.75 and 0.91 in winter, and 0.66 and 0.5 in summer in New South Wales and South Australia, respectively.

The effect of short-time microwave exposures on Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated onto chicken meat portions and whole chickens

Small portions of fresh chicken breasts weighting 20 g each and fresh whole chickens, weighting on average 1310 g each, were inoculated with Escherichia coli O157:H7 (10 5–10 6 cfu/g) and cooked, using two different domestic microwave ovens at full power. The chicken portions were heated for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 s and the whole chickens for 22 min. Following exposures, viable counts and temperature measurements were performed. Although the chicken breast portions looked well-cooked after 30 s of MW heating at a mean end-point surface temperature of 69.8 °C, a mean concentration of 83 cfu/g E. coli O157:H7 cells was recovered. Elimination of E. coli O157:H7 cells occurred only after 35 s of MW exposure at 73.7 °C. When whole chickens were thoroughly cooked by MW heating, the final subsurface temperatures, measured in the thighs and wings, ranged from 60.2 °C to 92 °C and viable cells of E. coli O157:H7 were recovered from all samples of whole chicken. The results indicate that short time exposures of chicken portions to microwave heating do not eliminate E. coli O157:H7.

The use of gaseous ozone and gas packaging to control populations of Salmonella infantis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on the skin of chicken portions

Chilled breasts of chicken were inoculated with Salmonella infantis or Pseudomonas aeruginosa and then given one of the following treatments: (i) exposure to gaseous ozone (>2000 ppm for up to 30 min); (ii) storage under 70% CO 2:30% N 2; and (iii) exposure to gaseous ozone (>2000 ppm for 15 min) followed by storage under 70% CO 2:30% N 2; all storage at 7 °C. Gaseous ozone reduced the counts of salmonellae by 97% and pseudomonads by 95%, but indigenous coliforms were unaffected. Under the modified atmosphere, the cell count of S. infantis was reduced by 72% following initial exposure and then stabilised, coliforms grew, but Ps. aeruginosa behaved like S. infantis––initial reduction (58%) followed by stability. Exposure to gaseous ozone followed by gas packaging allowed survival of S. infantis, Ps. aeruginosa and coliforms over 9 days at 7 °C, but there was no evidence of any sensory deterioration. It is proposed that the latter treatment could, in a modified form perhaps, be used to reduce the contamination of chicken carcasses with salmonellae and improve their shelf-life.

Antimicrobial Resistance of Salmonella in Raw Retail Chickens, Imported Chicken Portions, and Human Clinical Specimens

Salmonella isolates from raw, chilled, retail chickens (n = 434) sampled between 1998 and 2000 were tested for resistance to 12 antibiotics. Of 23 salmonellas isolated, 30% were susceptible and 30% were resistant or intermediately resistant to one antibiotic, 26% to two, and 13% to four or more. One Salmonella Saint-Paul and two Salmonella Typhimurium isolates were resistant to more than four antibiotics. Highest resistance rates were sulfonamide (52%), streptomycin (26%), tetracycline (22%), and ampicillin (17%). Isolates (n = 27) from frozen chicken portions (n = 150) imported from Brazil and Thailand (generally for manufacturing and catering) were also tested. Brazilian salmonellas showed no multiple resistance, but an isolate of Salmonella Virchow from Thai chickens was resistant to two antibiotics. This compared with 39% resistance to two or more antibiotics in nonimported isolates. Resistance patterns of both sets of chicken isolates were compared with human fecal clinical isolates (n = 274) submitted for routine examination at this hospital, and a greater similarity was found between the clinical and local isolates than with imported salmonellas. Sulfonamide resistance in imported salmonellas was lower than that of nonimported and clinical isolates. Resistance to one or more antimicrobial was found in 70% of nonimported raw retail chickens, 52% of imported chicken breast fillets, and 84% of human fecal isolates. Multiple resistance (to four or more antibiotics) is a much more limited problem.

Antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter in raw retail chickens and imported chicken portions.

Campylobacter isolates from raw retail chickens (n = 434) sampled between 1998 and 2000 were tested for resistance to 12 antibiotics. Among 208 campylobacters tested, more than 90% of isolates were susceptible to 4 out of 9 antibiotics (nalidixic acid, erythromycin, chloramphenicol and gentamicin). Most campylobacters were resistant to 3 antibiotics and multiple resistance was found in 4%. Ciprofloxacin resistance was 11%. Campylobacter contamination (28%) in imported chickens (n = 150) was almost half that found in local whole chickens (50%), but the resistance of imported isolates (n = 42) was similar to that of local campylobacters. Resistance in isolates from imported chicken breasts was generally more common, but to only 4 antibiotics. Resistance patterns of chicken isolates were compared to human clinical isolates (n = 494), and a greater similarity was found between the clinical and local isolates than with imported campylobacters. Lower chloramphenicol resistance was found in clinical Campylobacter isolates than in those from chicken sources.