Chichen Research Articles

Techno-functional properties of quality protein maize (QPM) (Zea mays L.) protein concentrates

Nowadays, new strategies and alternatives are being implemented to improve the protein quality of foods containing essential amino acids, like quality protein maize (QPM). The techno-functional properties of protein concentrate from QPM maize: Sac Beh (SB), Chichen Itza (ChI), and Blanco Uxmal (BU); non-nixtamalized (NN) and nixtamalized (N), were evaluated in the present work. The non-nixtamalized varieties showed higher amounts of protein in the QPM ChI (86.81%) and nitrogen solubility of 64.94% as the pH increased to 9. The emulsifying capacity was higher at pH 5 (60.74%). The non-nixtamalized SB samples showed higher foaming stability (1.82%) at pH 7, and the non-nixtamalized BU samples had higher foaming capacity at pH 5 (60.74%). Water holding capacities ranging from 1.2 to 3.13 g/g were achieved. The non-nixtamalized QPM concentrates had higher water and oil holding capacities. There was a predominance of elastic character over viscous character (G' > G'') in all treatments behaving as weak gels, which were affected in alkaline conditions by decreasing the modulus value. The techno-functional properties were affected by the processing method. These results could be beneficial for providing a better understanding of the properties of QPM proteins, allowing innovative ways of utilising these proteins as an ingredient in food systems.

Nutritional characterization of quality protein maize (QPM) (Zea mays L.) protein concentrates

Maize is considered a staple food for the population; however, its protein contribution to the development of individuals is limited by its low quality. Quality protein maize varieties (QPM) have been developed to remedy this. The protein quality presents in protein concentrates obtained from two QPM varieties was evaluated: Sac Beh (SB) and Chichen Itza (ChI), which were compared with a traditional variety (Blanco Uxmal, BU) as a control. All were evaluated with non-nixtamalization (NN) and nixtamalization (N). Amino acid profile, in vitro digestibility, calculated protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS), calculated protein efficiency ratio (c-PER), and biological value (BV) were determined. The extraction process of the QPM concentrates and nixtamalization had important effects on the essential amino acids Lys and Trp. In vitro digestibility showed significant differences (p < 0.05). The predominant limiting amino acid was tryptophan. The QPMs were closer to the requirements of the FAO/WHO standard, since they obtained chemical score values higher than 100% for His and Leu. PDCAAS values decreased in the amino acid tryptophan of SB and BU nixtamalized maize compared with the NN. PER7 and PER10 values were statistically higher (p < 0.05) in the QPMs compared to the BU control. The estimated biological value showed an imbalance in the concentration of essential amino acids. Lys and Trp in the QPM varieties were not sufficient evidence of increased biological value the proteins, due to the effect of the extraction processes and the alkaline heat treatment to which the maize grains were subjected.

ANIMAL PROVISIONING AT CHICHEN ITZA AND ISLA CERRITOS: A ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW OF FAUNAL UTILIZATION

AbstractZooarchaeological data are presented to examine aspects of animal resources utilization at Chichen Itza and Isla Cerritos during the Terminal Classic. Through the review of zooarchaeological records, a differential pattern emerges based on contextual and environmental origins of the identified taxa, highlighting the ritual importance of coastal species at Chichen Itza. In addition, the transportation network of animals and animal parts from the peninsular interior to Isla Cerritos and coastal areas towards Chichen Itza is outlined. The reviewed zooarchaeological evidence of both settlements represents the first effort to rethink and heighten understanding of the relationship between the northern Maya capital and its coastal outpost during the Terminal Classic, profiling the diverse environments being exploited and differential utilization in the coast and the interior of the Northern Lowlands.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF MASCULINITIES AT CHICHEN ITZA: A FUNCTIONAL INTERPRETATION OF STRUCTURE 2D6

AbstractThe structure of power underlying the hegemonic control Chichen Itza held over the Northern Maya Lowlands has been debated for decades. In this article, we present the idea of a dominant discourse on masculinities, which played a fundamental role in both practice and on a symbolic level among the strategies designed to support this emblematic pre-Columbian capital. Our discussion of archaeological evidence will focus on spaces where men are represented, where they would meet and carry out rituals. We contend that gallery-patios such as Structure 2D6 served as instruction and socialization locales for groups of warriors. The architectural configuration of this building is very similar to a series of venues at Chichen Itza and other Mesoamerican cities. In these spaces, associated iconography depicts male individuals in processions and ritual practice, including sacrifice and self-sacrifice. We argue that the gallery of Structure 2D6 was a semi-public, performative space, whose theatricality combined the central alignment of a sacrificial stone and a throne or altar with the presence of several patolli boards carved into the building's plaster floor. Chemical analyses of plastered surfaces testify to intense activities taking place around all three of these features.

CHICHEN ITZA AND ITS ECONOMY AT THE END OF THE CLASSIC PERIOD: TRIBUTE, CENTRALIZED REDISTRIBUTION, AND MARITIME STATIONS

AbstractStudies of the ancient economy associated with the Classic and Postclassic periods of Maya civilization show that, in order to explain it, the market economy model has been widely used, where economic transactions were carried out in marketplaces. In this type of economy, goods are exchanged based on an agreed value that takes into account supply and demand. However, other types of exchange, such as tribute and centralized redistribution, could have been used in those transactions instead of a market economy. This article analyzes the role that tribute and centralized redistribution may have played during the heyday of Chichen Itza between the tenth and eleventh centuries. This site seems to have used its powerful military supremacy to extract tribute from sites and regions it conquered militarily and politically as they experienced their collapse. In addition, the archaeological evidence suggests that Chichen Itza made political as well as economic alliances in different regions of the Maya Lowlands in order to obtain sumptuous goods. These commodities were used by members of the elite to reinforce the power structure and consolidate social relations among the different individuals who inhabited that community located in northern Yucatan.

HEADS, SKULLS, AND SACRED SCAFFOLDS. NEW STUDIES ON RITUAL BODY PROCESSING AND DISPLAY IN CHICHEN ITZA AND BEYOND

AbstractChichen Itza stands as a monumental landmark of late Pre-Columbian Maya and Mesoamerican religious complexes. Among the enigmatic aspects of Chichen Itza's ceremonial innovations count skull racks (known as tzompantli in Nahuatl), where the heads of sacrificed victims would be exhibited. Here we combine the scrutiny of death imagery and human skeletal remains, including skulls with marks of bilateral or basal impalement and mandibles with perimortem decapitation from “New” Chichen, the Osario complex, and from Chichen's astronomical Caracol complex. Our combined skeletal and iconographic data confirm the increased practice of corpse processing and head exhibition at Chichen Itza when compared to Classic-period Maya centers. Most of these body treatments were not foreign introductions, as generally believed, but followed local practices, long carried out at the Yucatecan urban centers of Nohpat, Kabah, Uxmal, and Dzibilchaltun. Although on a minor scale compared to Chichen, these demonstrate the display of human body segments, not only skulls, which renders the term tzompantli problematic. In the context of the totalitarian rhetoric of Chichen's central spaces, the massified violence and corpse display herald late religious cults at the cadences of battles won, astronomical cycles, and the perpetual movement of the Feathered Serpent.

Agronomic and Economic Assesment of Chichen Itza Corn with Chemical Fertilization and Biofertilizers in a rhodic Luvisol of Yucatan, Mexico

Agronomic and Economic Assesment of Chichen Itza Corn with Chemical Fertilization and Biofertilizers in a rhodic Luvisol of Yucatan, Mexico

Modeling, simulating, and comparing biased archaeological mortuary assemblages

This paper uses a novel approach to compensate for inherent sampling biases and to compare the age profiles of two ancient Maya sacrificial assemblages to expectations from a model life table for traditional horticultural populations. It seeks to statistically rule out the possibility that either site is accumulated due to a standard mortality process experienced in horticulturalist populations. This analysis utilizes data from Midnight Terror Cave (MTC), Belize and Chichén Itzá (CI), Mexico to compare the observed versus expected death counts by age. Monte-Carlo based estimates of preservation bias were modeled assuming a normal distribution with mean and variance based on expert opinion. This model was used to up-adjust age-specific death counts for both sites to make more robust sample sizes, which were compared to those expected from a model life table at the 5th, 50th, and 95th percentiles of the resampled distribution of preservation bias. At low levels of estimated bias (5th percentile), neither MTC nor CI assemblages could be distinguished from the null-mortality model. At average to higher levels of estimated bias (50th and 95th percentiles), both populations could be statistically distinguished from the null mortality model either across all age intervals or within specific age ranges. After accounting for preservation bias, the findings suggest that both MTC and CI assemblages were unlikely to have accumulated due to a normal mortality pattern experienced within traditional horticulturalist populations, further supporting the ethnographic and archaeological evidence that indicates that the sites are accumulated due to cultural practices related to human sacrifice.

Reproduction of the acoustic effect of the Kukulkan pyramid by delay effect in DAW

The Mayan city of Chichen Itza is full of legends and mysticism. There, in the temple of Kukulkan, in front of a great pyramid with 91 central staircases, an interesting physical-acoustic phenomenon occurs that has fed mythical stories attributed to the Mayas. When clapping your hands in front of the steps, the echo sounds very different from the sound emitted: The echo presents a ‘tonality’ that resembles a kind of bird chirping (chirp) which is said to be the response of the Quetzal, sacred bird of the Mayas. Earlier work has discussed the convolution method to find a simulation of the spectrum of the echo sound captured at Kukulkan. In this article we are going to present an analysis of the reflected sound using the wave superposition method, and thus obtain a sound with musical ‘Pitch’ as a result of the superposition of multiple reflections of a percussive sound, using the AUDACITY audio software, as demonstrated in the supplementary material.

Relics of a Childhood

Relics of a Childhood Tak Erzinger (bio) Chichen Itza—1982 We arrive at the pyramidover land and seain search of something, hija y madrewith dry mouthsand heavy steps I interpret languagea child should never hearread her thoughts, too a few pesosfor some drinksdoes not quench this thirst our dark facesscan the mysteryKukulkan's symbols, winged serpentdrawn to the sunlike me to her, I think [End Page 81] but what I overlookshe's brought me herea sacrifice offering up her guiltpenance for a lifeshe'd like to leave and like a snakeneeds to shed it nowpieces fall away on my lipsskin cracked—assaultedby what, I cannot say a silent cryfrom a childshe's letting slip away. [End Page 82] Blood Gold My mother had a coffer of goldand two languagesevery holiday she gaveme a piece of jewelry, theweight heavier and heavieras she unloaded the responsibilitynow I wear it like a leaden anchordug into the land of Colombia—a noose of memoriesattached to the walls ofa colonial house, dangling from guava treescoming in waves like that of the Atlanticfull of phantoms: Afro, Indigenous, and Spanish. I fiddle with the contours of the chainssearching for how she could let it all go?Pieces hanging on to melinks to something done unseenand think if she can give it up, so can I.I think emancipation. I ask the pawn shop,"How much is it worth?"I'm told a ton and I lookin the mirror, the heirloomsclinging around my skinI see the beauty my mother [End Page 83] refuses to see, I feel the painof it too. It's hard to bear the weightof who you are and where youcome from, how easy it isto get lost in translation.I choose to uphold her legacyno matter the cost. [End Page 84] Tak Erzinger TAK Erzinger is an American/Swiss poet and artist with a Colombian background. Her poetry has been featured in Bien Acompañada from Cornell University, River and South Review, Welter from the University of Baltimore, and more. Erzinger's most recent poetry collection, At the Foot of the Mountain (Floricanto Press), won the 2021 University of Indianapolis Etchings Press Whirling Prize for best nature poetry book. Copyright © 2022 Trustees of Indiana University

Effect of Chitosan-Poly(Acrylic Acid) Complexes and Two Nutrient Solutions on the Growth and Yield of Two Habanero Pepper Cultivars

Chitosan (CS) is a natural polymer used in agriculture as a biostimulant that has been evaluated in different plant models. In this study, we evaluated the effect of the foliar application of chitosan–poly(acrylic acid) complexes (CS–PAA) and two nutrient solutions (A and B) on the parameters of growth and yield of two habanero pepper cultivars (Chichen Itza and Jaguar) in a greenhouse. Over the course of the experiment, eight foliar applications were carried out at 15-day intervals. Our results showed that foliar applications of CS–PAA complexes have a biostimulant effect on the habanero pepper crop by increasing the total dry biomass of the plant and the number of fruits of the two cultivars. Regarding nutrient solutions, the nutrient solution A increased the yield of the Chichen Itza cultivar; this effect was because it had a better balance of potassium and calcium compared to the nutrient solution B. These results provide advances on the use of CS–PAA complexes as a biostimulant and the management of nutrient solutions in the crop of habanero peppers.

El Códice de Dresde como documento del Posclásico Tardío: análisis visual en el desarrollo del concepto

This research to determine the pre-Hispanic context of the Dresden Codex argues that it is Late Postclassic (1250 AD-Spanish conquest) and that it is not necessarily from the area of Chichen Itza. The conclusions modify the view of J. Eric S. Thompson, still highly influential after nearly fifty years, that it was painted in or near the settlement between 1200 and 1250 AD. Because the manuscript is a copy from Classic period sources, it is necessary to establish its date according to the most recent revision. This can be determined from a group of objects in the illustrations that are closely linked with Late Postclassic art. The study further supports interpretation of the period in neutral terms, not decadence.

Las cresterías mayas

Pre-Hispanic Maya architecture had different features that highlighted its visual impact. Among them were the battlements, like those registered in the Puuc region, but also present at the Chenes area, Edzna, or Chichen Itza. Another relevant top ending was the roofcomb, whose origins belong to the first centuries of our era and are associated with the Peten architecture. These elements were decorated with stucco images and evolved for many centuries through the Postclassic period. Considering their composition, they can be classified in four different formats, whose iconography included rulers, deities and symbolic motives.

Chacmools in Costa Rica: long-distance interaction between lower Central America and Mesoamerica,c. AD 1000

Abstract

Susceptibilidad de poblaciones nativas de maíz y preferencia del gorgojo en Yucatán, México

Uno de los problemas con el almacenamiento de semillas en maíz es la presencia de plagas que merman la calidad. Para hacer frente a este problema, se emplean materiales con poca o nula susceptibilidad. Las variedades nativas de maíz en Yucatán son reservorios de genes para resistencia a plagas de almacén. El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar el ataque de gorgojo (Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky) en ocho poblaciones de maíz y dos variedades testigo. Para determinar la susceptibilidad, 100 semillas de cada población se expusieron a la presencia de 100 gorgojos por 15 días, con 10 repeticiones, las variables fueron número de gorgojos vivos, pérdida de peso y porcentaje de grano dañado. La preferencia se determinó colocando en un mismo recipiente 100 semillas de cada población y 1 000 gorgojos, fueron almacenados por 30 días y repetido cinco veces. Se registró el porcentaje de grano dañado por color. La mayor susceptibilidad se presentó en las poblaciones Chichen Itza, Sac beh y Nal t’eel blanco, las dos primeras registraron el mayor porcentaje de grano dañado, con 15% por encima de las demás poblaciones evaluadas, mientras que la población Nal t’eel blanco registró 6.1% por encima de la menor pérdida. La preferencia del insecto fue hacia los granos de color blanco. El pericarpio (0.495) y escutelo (0.418) mostraron relación con la presencia de granos dañados. Existen diferencias en la susceptibilidad y preferencia de las poblaciones evaluadas, lo que indica variabilidad que puede aprovecharse en programas de mejoramiento genético.

THE STUCCOED AND PAINTED BENCHES OF XOCHICALCO, MORELOS, MEXICO

AbstractThe cultural tradition of stuccoed and polychromatic murals in central Mexico dates back to Early Classic Teotihuacan and continued into the subsequent Epiclassic period, with the stunning murals from Cacaxtla as the most famous and well-studied example. In this paper, we present three examples of stuccoed and richly painted benches or thrones from the mayor Epiclassic site of Xochicalco in the Mexican state of Morelos. A careful iconographic and epigraphic analysis of the imagery, as well as the associated hieroglyphic signs from one of the benches, leads us to suggest that these benches played a pivotal role in displaying the religious, mythological, and historical underpinnings of hierarchical power at Xochicalco. Based on comparisons with benches and seats from Classic Maya culture and, in particular, the contemporaneous Terminal Classic city of Chichen Itza, which was deeply involved in interregional relations with central Mexico, we also suggest that the Xochicalco benches may even have served as royal seats or thrones.

SOLSTICE AND SOLAR POSITION OBSERVATIONS IN AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER TRADITIONS

A major focus of the archaeoastronomical research conducted around the world focuses on understanding how ancient cultures observed sunrise and sunset points along the horizon, particularly at the solstices and equinoxes. Scholars argue that observations of these solar points are useful for developing calendars, informing ritual/ceremonial practices, and predicting seasonal change. This is the foundation of the Eurocentric four-season Julian (and later Gregorian) calendar. Famous examples include Stonehenge, Newgrange, Chichen Itza, and Chankillo. Studies at these and other sites tend to focus on solar point observations through alignments in stone arrangements, and the orientations of monuments. Despite the ongoing study of Indigenous Knowledge in Australia revealing a wealth of information about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander observations and interpretations of solar, lunar, and stellar properties and motions, very little has been published about the importance and use of solar point observations. The authors examine this topic through four case studies, based on methodological frameworks and approaches in ethnography, ethnohistory, archaeology, and statistics. Our findings show that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people observe the solstices and other significant sunrise/sunset points along the horizon for timekeeping and indicating seasonal change - but in ways that are rather different to the four-season model developed in Western Europe.

Yield, Tryptophan and Lysine Content of Two Quality Protein Maize Varieties in Two Luvisols with Bio Fertilization in Yucatan, Mexico

This work was carried out in Yucatan Mexico aiming to evaluate the yield performance, Tryptophan (Trp) and Lysine (Lys) contents of two quality protein maize varieties (Sac Beh and Chichen Itza) growing in two Luvisols with low (Lot 1) and high (Lot 2) intensive agricultural use. Six treatments resulted from combining the two varieties with chemical fertilizers (60-80-00):(N-P205-K2O) alone or supplemented with biofertilizers (60-80-00 + Mycorrhizae + Azospirillum) and the control (00-00-00). The variables were: yield (t·ha?1), Trp, Lys (g of amino acid/100 g of protein), Ashes (%) and Crude Protein (%). A Randomized block design was used with three replications for yield, ashes and crude protein and two replications for Trp and Lys. Statistical differences were found only in ashes. Regardless of the intensive soil use both varieties showed good yields, ranging from 5.0 to 6.5 t·ha?1. Higher yields were documented in the low intensive use Luvisol (Lot 1). The higher yields, in Lot 1, were obtained with (T Chem-Bio) whilst in Lot 2 was with (T Chem). Yields increased with the application of chemical fertilizers alone or in combination with biofertilizers but the amount of Trp and Lys decreased. Sac Beh showed to have better protein quality than Chichen Itza but none of them reached the optimal ranges reported in the literature, so more evidence is required to start with a plan to rescue and maintain the protein quality of both varieties.

Biocontrol de Damping off y promoción del crecimiento vegetativo en plantas de Capsicum chinense (Jacq) con Trichoderma spp.

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; El objetivo del estudio fue determinar la efectividad de Trichoderma spp. en la reducción de la incidencia del Damping off y promoción del crecimiento vegetativo de plantas de Capsicum chinense (Jacq.) var. “Chichen Itza”. Se evaluó la aplicación foliar, a través de un diseño completo al azar, de dos cepas nativas de Trichoderma sp. (SP6 y Clombta), la co-aplicación de ambas, un producto comercial (Tri-HB®: Trichoderma harzianum y Bacillus subtilis) y un fungicida químico (Captan®). Durante el periodo de estudio, las plantas tratadas con Trichoderma sp. Clombta y con la co-inoculación de Trichoderma sp. Clombta + Trichoderma sp. SP6 no mostraron síntomas de Damping off. Por el contrario, plantas tratadas con Captan® y Tri-HB® mostraron los porcentajes de incidencia acumulada más alta con 5 y 4.5%, respectivamente. Asimismo, a los 28 días después de la germinación, plantas tratadas con Trichoderma sp. Clombta presentaron una mayor altura (11 cm), diámetro de tallo (2.6 mm), biomasa aérea (fresca= 0.8 g planta-1 y seca= 0.13 g planta-1) y volumen radicular (fresca= 0.13 g planta-1 y seca= 0.04 g planta-1), en comparación al resto de los tratamientos evaluados. Para la formación de hojas (9.1 hojas planta-1), área foliar (10.2 cm2) e índice de clorofila (Clombta= 209.9) la aplicación de Trichoderma sp. Clombta destacó de nuevo con los valores más altos (p&lt; 0.05), respecto a las aplicaciones de Captan® y Tri-HB®. De acuerdo a los resultados obtenidos, se determinó que la cepa de Trichoderma sp. Clombta a concentración de 1x1013 conidios mL-1 resultó efectiva para el manejo del Damping off y promoción del crecimiento vegetativo de plantas de C. chinense var. “Chichen Itza”.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

La historia de los artefactos itinerantes de la Plataforma de Las Águilas y los Jaguares de Chichén Itzá, México

Este artículo intenta presentar la historia de la circulación de un conjunto de objetos arqueológicos recuperados en el siglo XIX por los exploradores Augustus Le Plongeon y Alice Dixon Le Plongeon en una ofrenda proveniente de la Plataforma de las Águilas y los Jaguares de Chichén Itzá, México. Al estudiar este conjunto de artefactos, analizamos las trayectorias e itinerarios de circulación de los objetos para comprender la materialización de subjetividades, memorias y elementos sociales en las piezas, así como para percibir usos y reutilizaciones realizadas a través del tiempo y en contextos diferentes. Para ello, utilizaremos el concepto del “itinerario” de los objetos, que trata de captar su complejidad a través de su propia dinámica, y en el desarrollo de tal argumento adoptamos como metodología la arqueología de archivo. Creemos que mediante el uso de dicho enfoque será posible recuperar historias, memorias y cuestiones sociales relativas a los objetos antiguos y así contribuir a una mejor comprensión e interpretación del pasado.