Chenopodium Rubrum Research Articles

Trans-generational effect of cerium oxide-nanoparticles (nCeO2) on Chenopodium rubrum L. and Sinapis alba L. seeds.

Cerium oxide nanoparticles (nCeO2 ) are interesting nanomaterials due to their redox properties. Their wide application could result in unexpected consequences to environmental safety. Unlike acute toxicity, the trans-generational effects of carbohydrate-coated nCeO2 in the environment are still unknown. The main aim of this study was to investigate the effect of treating maternal plants of Chenopodium rubrum L. (red goosefoot) and Sinapis alba L. (white mustard) with uncoated (CeO2 ) and glucose-, levan-, or pullulan-coated nCeO2 (G-, L-, or P-CeO2 ) during seed germination on morphological and physiological characteristics of produced seeds in two subsequent generations. The plant response was studied by measuring germination percentage (Ger), total protein content (TPC), total phenolic content (TPhC), total antioxidative activity (TAA), and catalase (CAT) activity. Results showed that maternal effects of the different nCeO2 treatments persist to at least the second generation in seeds. Generally, C. rubrum was more sensitive to nCeO2 treatments than S. alba . The coated nCeO2 were more effective than uncoated ones in both plant species; L- and P-CeO2 were the most effective in S. alba , while CeO2 and G-CeO2 had a dominant impact in C. rubrum . Enhanced germination in all tested generations of S. alba seeds recommends nCeO2 for seed priming.

Ethnobotany and traditional medicine in the Pamir

The article describes diversity of medicinal plants of the Pamir and their use in traditional medicine for the treatment of bone diseases - rheumatoid arthritis, arthrosis, radiculitis, bone fracture and others. Mainly, degenerative processes, cartilage tissue destruction or inflammation lead to these health issues. The research shows that more than 20 medicinal plants of the Pamir are widely used in ethno medicine as therapeutic agents for the above mentioned problems. Such plants like Chenopodium rubrum, Berberis iliensis, Equisetum arvense, Nepeta glutinosa, Artemisia sieversianus etc, some of which widely distributed in the Pamir, contain bioactive components that helpful for bone diseases. The eth-nobotanical studies helped us to show the value of these plants in traditional medicine of the Pamir. Based on the results, we recommend the plants for the further pharmacognostic and pharmacologic research as source of therapeutic agents and identification their potential for future use in medicine.

Observations of feeding damage of some Turkish leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) with new masquerade and host plant records

Twenty-three observations of leaf beetles and their feeding damage are reported. Masquerade is found in 15 observations. In 12 observations dark colored beetles were making obvious dark colored damage. Light colored beetles of three species were observed making light colored damage. Masquerade in Chrysomelinae is reported here for the first time. In Galerucinae, masquerade is recorded for the first time for the species of Calomicrus Stephens and Orthocrepis Weise. New host plants are recorded for: Longitarsus hittita Biondi - Anchusa azurea Mill.; Longitarsus audisioi Biondi - Symphytum asperum Lepech.; and Chaetocnema tibialis (Illiger) - Chenopodium rubrum L.

Transcriptomic study of the night break in Chenopodium rubrum reveals possible upstream regulators of the floral activator CrFTL1

The transition from vegetative to reproductive phases is the most fundamental and tightly controlled switch in the life of flowering plants. The short-day plant Chenopodium rubrum is a fast cycling annual plant lacking a juvenile phase. It can be induced to flowering at the seedling stage by exposure to a single period of darkness. This floral induction may then be cancelled by a short pulse of red light at midnight called night break (NB), which also inhibits the floral activator FLOWERING LOCUS T LIKE 1 (CrFTL1). We performed a comparative transcriptomic study between C. rubrum seedlings treated by NB and ones growing through uninterrupted night, and found about six hundred differentially expressed genes, including the B-BOX DOMAIN (BBX) genes. We focused on the CrBBX19 and BOLTING TIME CONTROL 1 (BTC1) genes, homologous to the upstream regulators of the BvFT2, a floral inducer in sugar beet. The transcription patterns of the two genes were compatible with their putative role as a sensor of the dark period length optimal for flowering (CrBBX19), and a signal of lights-on (CrBTC1), but the participation of other genes cannot be excluded. The expression profiles of CrBBX19 and the homolog of the core endogenous clock gene LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL (LHY) were highly similar, which suggested their co-regulation.

Phenolic Acid LC/MS Profile of Chenopodium rubrum and Evaluation of Cytotoxic Activity

The phenolic acids content of methanolic extracts before and after acidic hydrolysis of different morphological parts of Chenopodium rubrum was determined by LC-ESI-MS/MS. Overall eleven phenolic acids were detected and quantified. The most common were p-coumaric, ferulic and salicylic acids, which were present in all analyzed extracts. Gallic, caffeic, vanillic, syringic and sinapic acids were found in bound forms. Gentisic acid was most abundant in roots (3.7 mg/100g d.w.), syringic acid in stalks (2.9 mg/100 g d.w.), ferulic acid in leaves (6.0 mg/100g d.w.), and protocatechuic acid in seeds (2.3 mg/100g d.w.). The highest concentration of examined acids was found in leaves (19.1 mg/100g d.w.) and roots (10.0 mg/100g d.w.). Cytotoxic activity of extracts was tested against human cancer cell lines HTB 140, WM 793, Du 145 and normal PNT2 cells. Only the seed extract showed activity against malignant melanoma WM 793 cell line (69.6 ± 0.7% of dead cells at 100 μg/mL).

Advancement of the cultivation and upscaling of photoautotrophic suspension cultures using Chenopodium rubrum as a case study

Photoautotrophic (PA) suspension cultures combine the advantages of cell suspensions with carbon autotrophy and have been used for various applications including studies on photosynthesis, sugar signal transduction, herbicide action, and stress responses. A major practical drawback is the requirement for elevated CO2, which is typically generated by a buffer system in two-tier flasks that need to be custom made and require time-consuming handling. In this study, we substantially simplified and improved the cultivation of a PA culture of Chenopodium rubrum as a case study in Erlenmeyer flasks shaken in a CO2 enriched photoincubator. Growth rates and photosynthetic activity were found to be comparable to those in two-tier flasks but with the advantage of constant CO2 level throughout the cultivation. In addition, it was possible to establish the cultivation in a commercial laboratory-scale photobioreactor with various options to control and continuously measure the culture conditions and regimes and assess the physiological status. Although the relative biomass yield and photosynthetic performance of the batch cultures was not fully reached, the continuous cultivation system provides a good basis for future scale-up if larger amounts of biomass are needed or to impose specific cultivation regimes in combination with comprehensive online monitoring. The different improvements should contribute to the more widespread use of higher plant PA cultures and also facilitate the cultivation of microalgae.

The Evolution of the FT/TFL1 Genes in Amaranthaceae and Their Expression Patterns in the Course of Vegetative Growth and Flowering in Chenopodium rubrum.

The FT/TFL1 gene family controls important aspects of plant development: MFT-like genes affect germination, TFL1-like genes act as floral inhibitors, and FT-like genes are floral activators. Gene duplications produced paralogs with modified functions required by the specific lifestyles of various angiosperm species. We constructed the transcriptome of the weedy annual plant Chenopodium rubrum and used it for the comprehensive search for the FT/TFL1 genes. We analyzed their phylogenetic relationships across Amaranthaceae and all angiosperms. We discovered a very ancient phylogenetic clade of FT genes represented by the CrFTL3 gene of C. rubrum. Another paralog CrFTL2 showed an unusual structural rearrangement which might have contributed to the functional shift. We examined the transcription patterns of the FT/TFL1 genes during the vegetative growth and floral transition in C. rubrum to get clues about their possible functions. All the genes except for the constitutively expressed CrFTL2 gene, and the CrFTL3 gene, which was transcribed only in seeds, exhibited organ-specific expression influenced by the specific light regime. The CrFTL1 gene was confirmed as a single floral activator from the FT/TFL1 family in C. rubrum. Its floral promoting activity may be counteracted by CrTFL1. C. rubrum emerges as an easily manipulated model for the study of floral induction in weedy fast-cycling plants lacking a juvenile phase.

Erratum to: Accumulation of Cr, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Zn by plants in tanning sludge storage sites: opportunities for contamination bioindication and phytoremediation.

Tanning sludge enriched with high concentrations of Cr and other metals has adverse effects on the environment. Plants growing in the metalliferous soils may have the ability to cope with high metal concentrations. This study focuses on potentials of using native plants for bioindication and/or phytoremediation of Cr-contaminated sites. In the study, we characterized plants and soils from six tanning sludge storage sites. Soil in these sites exhibited toxic levels of Cr (averaged 16,492 mg kg−1) and other metals (e.g., 48.3 mg Cu kg−1, 2370 mg Zn kg−1, 44.9 mg Pb kg−1, and 0.59 mg Cd kg−1). Different metal tolerance and accumulation patterns were observed among the sampled plant species. Phragmites australis, Zephyranthes candida, Cynodon dactylon, and Alternanthera philoxeroides accumulated moderate-high concentrations of Cr and other metals, which could make them good bioindicators of heavy metal pollution. High Cr and other metal concentrations (e.g., Cd and Pb) were found in Chenopodium rubrum (372 mg Cr kg−1), Aster subulatus (310 mg Cr kg−1), and Brassica chinensis (300 mg Cr kg−1), being considered as metal accumulators. In addition, Nerium indicum and Z. candida were able to tolerate high concentrations of Cr and other metals, and they may be used as preferable pioneer species to grow or use for restoration in Cr-contaminated sites. This study can be useful for establishing guidelines to select the most suitable plant species to revegetate and remediate metals in tanning sludge-contaminated fields.

Effects of temperature, moisture and soil type on seedling emergence and mortality of riparian plant species

Restoration of riparian plant communities on bare soil requires germination of seeds and establishment of seedlings. However, species that are present in the soil seed bank do not always establish in the vegetation. Temperature, moisture conditions and soil type could play a major role in the establishment of riparian plant communities, through impacting seedling emergence.We studied the effects of temperature, combinations of temperature and moisture conditions, and soil type on seedling emergence and mortality of perennial reeds (Typha latifolia and Phragmites australis) and annual or biannual pioneer species (Senecio congestus, Rumex maritimus and Chenopodium rubrum). The responses to the environmental conditions were species-specific and resulted in context-dependent differences in proportions of species emerging from the soil seed bank. Typha latifolia and S. congestus preferred wet or very wet conditions, C. rubrum and R. maritimus preferred dry to very dry conditions. Phragmites australis was able to establish under all conditions. Both cold and very dry conditions resulted in low emergence and survival, which was not fully compensated for when conditions became favorable again. Senecio congestus, R. maritimus and C. rubrum benefitted from secondary seedling emergence when, after a very dry period, the weather became very wet again, while T. latifolia and P. australis remained absent.When the conditions remained wet, more seedlings emerged from sand than from clay. However, when the soil was drying out, fewer seedlings emerged from sand than from clay.We propose that using information on plant species-specific responses to abiotic environmental conditions during germination, emergence and establishment can help to restore different target riparian plant communities.

Accumulation of Cr, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Zn by plants in tanning sludge storage sites: opportunities for contamination bioindication and phytoremediation.

Tanning sludge enriched with high concentrations of Cr and other metals has adverse effects on the environment. Plants growing in the metalliferous soils may have the ability to cope with high metal concentrations. This study focuses on potentials of using native plants for bioindication and/or phytoremediation of Cr-contaminated sites. In the study, we characterized plants and soils from six tanning sludge storage sites. Soil in these sites exhibited toxic levels of Cr (averaged 16,492mgkg-1) and other metals (e.g., 48.3mg Cukg-1, 2370mg Znkg-1, 44.9mg Pbkg-1, and 0.59mg Cdkg-1). Different metal tolerance and accumulation patterns were observed among the sampled plant species. Phragmites australis, Zephyranthes candida, Cynodon dactylon, and Alternanthera philoxeroides accumulated moderate-high concentrations of Cr and other metals, which could make them good bioindicators of heavy metal pollution. High Cr and other metal concentrations (e.g., Cd and Pb) were found in Chenopodium rubrum (372mg Crkg-1), Aster subulatus (310mg Crkg-1), and Brassica chinensis (300mg Crkg-1), being considered as metal accumulators. In addition, Nerium indicum and Z. candida were able to tolerate high concentrations of Cr and other metals, and they may be used as preferable pioneer species to grow or use for restoration in Cr-contaminated sites. This study can be useful for establishing guidelines to select the most suitable plant species to revegetate and remediate metals in tanning sludge-contaminated fields.

Antioxidative and cytotoxic potential of some Chenopodium L. species growing in Poland

The cytotoxic and antioxidant properties of lipophilic compounds extracted from different parts of four Chenopodium L. (Chenopodium album, Chenopodium hybridum, Chenopodium rubrum and Chenopodium urbicum) species were evaluated. The highest phenolic content was found in herb and seeds of all examined plants. Large amounts of free polyphenols were observed in herb extracts of C. album (3.36mg/g DW), seeds of C. urbicum (3.87mg/g DW) and roots of C. urbicum (1.52mg/g DW). The cytotoxic activities of the extracts were assessed against human lung carcinoma A-549 and ovarian carcinoma TOV-112D and normal human fibroblast cell lines. Our study demonstrated that the extracts from the herb of C. rubrum and C. urbicum had the best antioxidant effect of all the extracts analyzed. Most of the extracts tested exhibited low cytotoxicity. However, the extracts from herb and seeds of C. album and C. hybridum showed the significant antiproliferative effect on the TOV-112 cell line.It can be concluded that antioxidant activity and phenolic composition differ mainly between plant parts and are quite similar between the plants, when the same plant part is analyzed. Thus, the Chenopodium extracts could be used as a readily accessible source of natural antioxidants, and may be used in the pharmaceutical industry and for food supplements production.

Ectopic overexpression of the cell wall invertase gene CIN1 leads to dehydration avoidance in tomato.

Drought stress conditions modify source-sink relations, thereby influencing plant growth, adaptive responses, and consequently crop yield. Invertases are key metabolic enzymes regulating sink activity through the hydrolytic cleavage of sucrose into hexose monomers, thus playing a crucial role in plant growth and development. However, the physiological role of invertases during adaptation to abiotic stress conditions is not yet fully understood. Here it is shown that plant adaptation to drought stress can be markedly improved in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) by overexpression of the cell wall invertase (cwInv) gene CIN1 from Chenopodium rubrum. CIN1 overexpression limited stomatal conductance under normal watering regimes, leading to reduced water consumption during the drought period, while photosynthetic activity was maintained. This caused a strong increase in water use efficiency (up to 50%), markedly improving water stress adaptation through an efficient physiological strategy of dehydration avoidance. Drought stress strongly reduced cwInv activity and induced its proteinaceous inhibitor in the leaves of the wild-type plants. However, the CIN1-overexpressing plants registered 3- to 6-fold higher cwInv activity in all analysed conditions. Surprisingly, the enhanced invertase activity did not result in increased hexose concentrations due to the activation of the metabolic carbohydrate fluxes, as reflected by the maintenance of the activity of key enzymes of primary metabolism and increased levels of sugar-phosphate intermediates under water deprivation. The induced sink metabolism in the leaves explained the maintenance of photosynthetic activity, delayed senescence, and increased source activity under drought stress. Moreover, CIN1 plants also presented a better control of production of reactive oxygen species and sustained membrane protection. Those metabolic changes conferred by CIN1 overexpression were accompanied by increases in the concentrations of the senescence-delaying hormone trans-zeatin and decreases in the senescence-inducing ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) in the leaves. Thus, cwInv critically functions at the integration point of metabolic, hormonal, and stress signals, providing a novel strategy to overcome drought-induced limitations to crop yield, without negatively affecting plant fitness under optimal growth conditions.

A dark–light transition triggers expression of the floral promoter CrFTL1 and downregulates CONSTANS-like genes in a short-day plant Chenopodium rubrum

The proper timing of flowering is essential for the adaptation of plant species to their ever-changing environments. The central position in a complex regulatory network is occupied by the protein FT, which acts as a florigen. We found that light, following a permissive period of darkness, was essential to induce the floral promoter CrFTL1 and to initiate flowering in seedlings of the short-day plant Chenopodium rubrum L. We also identified two novel CONSTANS-like genes in C. rubrum and observed their rhythmic diurnal and circadian expressions. Strong rhythmicity of expression suggested that the two genes might have been involved in the regulation of photoperiod-dependent processes, despite their inability to complement co mutation in A. thaliana. The CrCOL1 and CrCOL2 genes were downregulated by dark-light transition, regardless of the length of a preceding dark period. The same treatment activated the floral promoter CrFTL1. Light therefore affected CrCOL and CrFTL1 in an opposite manner. Both CrCOL genes and CrFTL1 displayed expression patterns unique among short-day plants. Chenopodium rubrum, the subject of classical physiological studies in the past, is emerging as a useful model for the investigation of flowering at the molecular level.

Characterization of a Glycan Exo-Hydrolase that Shows a Biphasic Expression in the Course of an In Vitro Culture of Photoautotrophic Oxybasis rubra Cells

Like plant leaves, suspension cultures of photoautotrophic Oxybasis rubra Fuentes-Bazan (syn. Chenopodium rubrum L.) cells pass through distinct developmental phases when grown under CO2 as the sole carbon source: an initial cell division phase of 4 weeks, a stationary phase of another 4 weeks and an aging phase (3-4 weeks) when the cell senesce and finally die. These phases are reflected by differential gene expression. A gene that was strongly expressed in the course of the stationary phase but much lesser during the exponential growth phase of the cell culture was isolated from a cDNA-library of stationary cells and completed by 5’-RACE. From homology analysis, the gene was tentatively identified as glycan exo-hydrolase (Oxybasis rubra glycan exo-hydrolase, OrGEH). Heterologous expression in E. coli yielded a protein with a preference to hydrolyze the s-D-galactopyranoside, s-D-fucopyranoside and s-D-glucopyranoside of the corresponding artificial p-nitrophenyl substrates. Possible function of the protein in cell-wall metabolism was confirmed by extracellular localization of the GFP-fusion protein in transformed Nicotiana benthamiana leaves, by an N-terminal signal sequence for the secretory pathway and by the positive response of gene expression to auxin. Suspension cultured OrGEH RNAi-lines showed not only strongly reduced cell division activity but also lack of the stationary phase during which the cells usually double their biomass by extension growth. Although the natural substrate of the protein is not known we propose a function of OrGEH in the processing of cell wall components during cell division and cell extension growth.

Assessment of weed establishment risk in a changing European climate

We aimed at assessing establishment risk for 25 arable weed species in a changing European climate for the period 2051–2080. An increase (0.3–46.7%) in the range size was projected for the 14 species and a decrease (1.2–67.4%) for the 11 species in a future climate. The inclusion of the land use data increased the explanatory power of the models. The greatest increases in range sizes were projected for Amaranthus retroflexus, Papaver hybridum and Fumaria parviflora, and declines for Sinapis arvensis, Cerastium semidecandrum and Chenopodium rubrum. Application of a more severe climate scenario (HadCM3A2) affected decline (0.5–18.5%) for 12 species and increase (2.2–31.5%) for 13 species in the range size projections compared with the less severe (HadCM3B2) scenario. Both model scenarios projected high percentage species loss in Mediterranean and temperate Europe, but high species gain in the Alps, Carpathians and in boreal Europe. The results suggest that even under moderate climate scenarios drastic changes in the weed establishment risk can be expected to take place in Europe in the future.

Enhancement and quantification of repellent activity in Chenopodium cells

Arthropod–plant interactions are vital in agriculture and pharmacology. However, enhancement and quantification of plant cell behavioural activity is still a challenge. Therefore, the finding of chitosan-induced anti-fungal activity in plants suggested a promising potential. Consequently, we treated autotroph and heterotroph Chenopodium rubrum L. cell cultures with chitosan to test behavioural activity with Tenebrio molitor L. larvae. We found chitosans to enhance repelling, depending on low molecular weight, partial degree of deacetylation, plant cell type and age. These effects of chitosans were compared with abiotic stresses induced by salt, osmotic changes and heat shock, collecting data of six plant cell samples, 18 plant cell treatments, 6,912 larvae and 8,424 analyses of regression and variance. Behavioural activity was quantified by linear, multivariate and nonlinear approaches, testing an exponential model in 78 segments of 5 h time kinetics. Thereby, we introduced a sensitive, low-cost bio-assay and a preference index constant as a measure of transient behaviour. Multivariate analyses revealed the five principal factors to enhance the behavioural activity in plant cells: (1) salt-osmo-sensor, (2) high molecular weight chitosan sensor, (3) acetic acid-antagonized low molecular weight chitosan sensor, (4) heat shock sensor and (5) mannitol-sensitive chitosan sensor. Thus, we suggest the independent factors (1)–(5) for the management of insect pests by autotroph and heterotroph plant materials.

Ecological analysis of plant cover of the permanent grassland ecosystem located in the vicinity of Novi Knezevac, Serbia

A total of 205 taxa and stands of 12 plant communities were found to comprise the plant cover of the permanent grassland on the solonetz and solonchakic solonetz soils located in the vicinity of the town of Novi Kneževac (Vojvodina Province, Serbia). The registered taxa included 177 plant species, six subspecies, eight varieties, 13 forms and one lusus. The ecological analysis of the flora involved 191 taxa. That group consisted of 177 species, six subspecies, three varieties and five forms. The three varieties, Aster tripolium L. var. pannonicus ( Jacq.) Beck, Chenopodium rubrum L. subsp. botryoides Sm. var. crassifolium (Hornem) Kov. and Sonchus arvensis L. var. uliginosus (M.B.) Grec. were used for analysis because their higher taxonomic categories were not recorded in the studied flora. The five forms, Aster sedifolius L. f. subsquamosus Soy, Bromus commutatus Schrad. f. violaceus Podp., Mentha aquatica L. f. erromera Top., Poa bulbosa L. f. vivipara Koel. and Scleranthus annus L. f. minimus Schur., were used for the same reason. The ecological analysis encompassed stands of all 12 recorded communities, i.e. ass. Scirpo-Phragmitetum W. Koch 1926, ass. Bolboschoenetum maritimi continentale Soy (1927) 1957, ass. Acorelletum pannonici Soy (1939) 1947, ass. Puccinelletum limosae (Rapcs. 1927) Soy 1930, ass. Pholiuro-Plantaginetum tenuiflorae (Rapcs. 1927) Wendel. 1943, ass. Hordeetum histricis (Soy 1933) Wendel. 1943, ass. Camphorosmetum annuae (Rapcs. 1916) Soy 1933 corr. Soy 1938, ass. Agrostio-Alopecuretum pratensis Soy (1933) 1947, ass. Agrostio-Eleochariti-Alopecuretu geniculati (Magyar1928) Soy (1939) 1947, ass. Artemisio-Festucetum pseudovinae (Magyar 1928) Soy 1945, ass. Achilleo-Festucetum pseudovinae (Magyar 1928) Soy 1945 and ass. Festuco-Andropogonetum ischaemi Vuck. 1985. The ecological analysis of the plant cover indicated that halophytes made 30.37% of the flora of the permanent grassland near the town of Novi Kneževac, and that the stands of the recorded plant communities grew on sites that differed widely in the salt content in the rhizosphere soil layer. On average, these sites were moderately dry (F - 2.72) and moderately basic (R - 3.26), with moderate contents of nitrogen and nitrogen- containing substances (N - 3.07), a medium humus content (H - 2.94) and a moderately favourable aeration (D - 3.99). The plant cover of these sites, typical for meadows, was dominated by thermophilous plants adapted to full light (T - 4.05) but also to some shading (L - 3.84) as well as to the continental climate of the studied location (K - 3.27).

Towards a species level tree of the globally diverse genus Chenopodium (Chenopodiaceae)

Chenopodium is a large and morphologically variable genus of annual and perennial herbs with an almost global distribution. All subgenera and most sections of Chenopodium were sampled along with other genera of Chenopodieae, Atripliceae and Axyrideae across the subfamily Chenopodioideae (Chenopodiaceae), totalling to 140 taxa. Using Maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses of the non-coding trnL-F (cpDNA) and nuclear ITS regions, we provide a comprehensive picture of relationships of Chenopodium sensu lato. The genus as broadly classified is highly paraphyletic within Chenopodioideae, consisting of five major clades. Compared to previous studies, the tribe Dysphanieae with three genera Dysphania, Teloxys and Suckleya (comprising the aromatic species of Chenopodium s.l.) is now shown to form one of the early branches in the tree of Chenopodioideae. We further recognize the tribe Spinacieae to include Spinacia, several species of Chenopodium, and the genera Monolepis and Scleroblitum. The Chenopodium rubrum and the Ch. murale-clades were newly discovered as distinct major lineages but their relationships within Chenopodioideae will need further evaluation. Based on our results, we suggest the delimitation of Chenopodium to include Einadia and Rhagodia because these are part of the crown group composed of species of subg. Chenopodium that appear sister to the Atripliceae. The tetraploid crops such as Ch. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae and Ch. quinoa also belong to Chenopodium sensu stricto. Trees derived from trnL-F and ITS were incongruent within this shallow crown group clade. Possible biological causes are discussed, including allopolyploidization.

Multivariate analyses of salt stress and metabolite sensing in auto‐ and heterotroph Chenopodium cell suspensions

Global warming increases plant salt stress via evaporation after irrigation, but how plant cells sense salt stress remains unknown. Here, we searched for correlation-based targets of salt stress sensing in Chenopodium rubrum cell suspension cultures. We proposed a linkage between the sensing of salt stress and the sensing of distinct metabolites. Consequently, we analysed various extracellular pH signals in autotroph and heterotroph cell suspensions. Our search included signals after 52 treatments: salt and osmotic stress, ion channel inhibitors (amiloride, quinidine), salt-sensing modulators (proline), amino acids, carboxylic acids and regulators (salicylic acid, 2,4-dichlorphenoxyacetic acid). Multivariate analyses revealed hirarchical clusters of signals and five principal components of extracellular proton flux. The principal component correlated with salt stress was an antagonism of γ-aminobutyric and salicylic acid, confirming involvement of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) in salt stress sensing. Proline, short non-substituted mono-carboxylic acids (C2-C6), lactic acid and amiloride characterised the four uncorrelated principal components of proton flux. The proline-associated principal component included an antagonism of 2,4-dichlorphenoxyacetic acid and a set of amino acids (hydrophobic, polar, acidic, basic). The five principal components captured 100% of variance of extracellular proton flux. Thus, a bias-free, functional high-throughput screening was established to extract new clusters of response elements and potential signalling pathways, and to serve as a core for quantitative meta-analysis in plant biology. The eigenvectors reorient research, associating proline with development instead of salt stress, and the proof of existence of multiple components of proton flux can help to resolve controversy about the acid growth theory.

Effect of photoperiod during growth of Chenopodium rubrum mother plants on properties of offspring

Using in vitro culture, we determined the effect of photoperiod during growth of Chenopodium rubrum mother plants on vegetative and reproductive development of offspring. Photoperiod during flowering induction of mother plants (the first 6 d after the germination) has the key influence on seed germination and offspring growth, while offspring flowering and seed maturation is determined by photoperiod their mothers experienced during, and shortly after, flowering induction. The mechanism can be through changes in seed protein pattern which we found dependent on photoperiod experienced by mother plants.