Chenopodium Berlandieri Research Articles

North American pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) is a genetic resource to improve Andean quinoa (C. quinoa)

Pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) is a free-living North American member of an allotetraploid complex that includes the Andean pseudocereal quinoa (C. quinoa). Like quinoa, pitseed goosefoot was domesticated, possibly independently, in eastern North America (subsp. jonesianum) and Mesoamerica (subsp. nuttaliae). To test the utility of C. berlandieri as a resource for quinoa breeding, we produced the whole-genome DNA sequence of PI 433,231, a huauzontle from Puebla, México. The 1.295 Gb genome was assembled into 18 pseudomolecules and annotated using RNAseq data from multiple tissues. Alignment with the v.2.0 genome of Chilean-origin C. quinoa cv. ‘QQ74’ revealed several inversions and a 4A-6B reciprocal translocation. Despite these rearrangements, some quinoa x pitseed goosefoot crosses produce highly fertile hybrids with faithful recombination, as evidenced by a high-density SNP linkage map constructed from a Bolivian quinoa ‘Real-1’ × BYU 937 (Texas coastal pitseed goosefoot) F2 population. Recombination in that cross was comparable to a ‘Real-1’ × BYU 1101 (Argentine C. hircinum) F2 population. Furthermore, SNP-based phylogenetic and population structure analyses of 90 accessions supported the hypothesis of multiple independent domestications and descent from a common 4 × ancestor, with a likely North American Center of Origin.

Evidence for the Eastern Agricultural Complex Crops in the Upper Delaware Valley: Botanical Analysis from the Manna Site (36Pi4)

AbstractFrom the Archaic period onward, Indigenous populations across the Eastern Woodlands cultivated a suite of crops known to archaeologists as the Eastern Agricultural Complex. However, aside from squash (Cucurbita pepo) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus), little evidence exists for the cultivation of these plants in the northeastern Algonquian homeland. Botanical analysis from the Manna site (36Pi4), located in the Upper Delaware Valley, provides evidence for the cultivation of the full suite of Eastern Agricultural Complex crops. Flotation samples analyzed from Manna provide the first evidence for possible Lenape cultivation of chenopodium (Chenopodium berlandieri), squash, sunflower, and marshelder (Iva annua) from contexts dating to AD 0–1650 (Middle and Late Woodland) at Manna. Lenape cultivation of these crops complicates the traditional view of Indigenous agricultural systems in northeastern North America and raises questions about when and how these species were introduced to the region.

Probiotic Potential of Bacteria Isolated from Huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri spp. Nuttalliae) and Multifunctional Properties of Their Intracellular Contents

Probiotic Potential of Bacteria Isolated from Huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri spp. Nuttalliae) and Multifunctional Properties of Their Intracellular Contents

Impact of Drying Process on the Phenolic Profile and Antioxidant Capacity of Raw and Boiled Leaves and Inflorescences of Chenopodium berlandieri ssp. berlandieri.

C. berlandieri ssp. berlandieri (C. berlandieri) is one of the most common members of the group of plants known as quelites, which are dark leafy greens widely consumed in Mexico. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of two drying procedures (oven drying and freeze-drying/lyophilization) on the polyphenolic composition, antioxidant capacity, and proximal chemical analysis of C. berlandieri leaves and inflorescences (raw or boiled). The results indicated that the raw freeze-dried samples had higher amounts (p < 0.05) of total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity, mainly in the inflorescence. The oven-dried samples showed an increased concentration of polyphenols after boiling, while the lyophilized samples showed a slightly decreased concentration. The drying process was observed to have little impact on the proximal chemical composition. Quantification by UPLC-DAD-ESI-QToF/MS identified up to 23 individual phenolic compounds, with freeze-dried samples showing higher amounts of individual compounds compared with oven-dried. Procyanidin B2 was found exclusively in the inflorescences. The inflorescences have a higher content of phenolic compounds and greater antioxidant capacity than the leaves. Regardless of the drying process, the leaves and inflorescences of C. berlandieri contain an interesting variety of phenolic compounds that may have beneficial effects on health.

Turning Over a New Leaf: Experimental Investigations into the Role of Developmental Plasticity in the Domestication of Goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) in Eastern North America

AbstractIn eastern North America, Indigenous peoples domesticated several crops that are now extinct. We present experimental data that alters our understanding of the domestication of one of these—goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri). Ancient domesticated goosefoot has been recognized on the basis of seed morphology, especially a decrease in the thickness of the seed coat (testa). Nondomesticated goosefoot also sometimes produces seeds that look similar or even identical to domesticated ones, but researchers believed that such seeds were rare (1%–3%). We conducted a common garden experiment and a series of carbonization experiments to better understand the determinants of seed polymorphism in archaeobotanical assemblages. We found that goosefoot produces much higher percentages of thin-testa seeds (mean 50% in our experiment, 15%–34% in free-living parent populations) than previously reported. We also found that cultivated plants produce more thin-testa seeds than their free-living parents, demonstrating that this trait is plastic in response to a garden environment. The carbonization experiments suggest that thin-testa seeds preserve under a larger window of conditions than thick-testa seeds, contrary to our expectations. These results suggest that (1) carbonized, phenotypically mixed assemblages should be interpreted cautiously, and (2) developmental plasticity and genetic assimilation played a role in the domestication of goosefoot.

Evaluation of Chenopodium quinoa × C. berlandieri recombinant inbred lines (RILs) for heat tolerance

There is growing interest in expanding quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) cultivation; however, the main limitation is its sensitivity to temperatures above 32-35 °C. Chenopodium berlandieri Moq., the wild-weedy North American ancestor of quinoa, was employed as an exotic source of drought, heat, and salinity tolerance to enlarge genetic variation in cultivated quinoa. The present work aims to assess the influence of high temperatures on seed setting rate and production potential of two quinoa recombinant inbred lines (RILs), RIL2-4 and RIL2-5. Thus, trials were carried out in Morocco at Berrechid and Tiflet in 2017-2018 and Bouchane, Meknès, and El Kebab in 2018-2019. The field experiment design was a randomized complete block with four replicates. Ten quantitative traits were measured. The ANOVA showed significant variability for all the evaluated parameters. The seed setting rate had widely different degrees of variation among experimental sites, exceeding 120% at Berrechid and Tiflet while approaching 98% at Bouchane. Tiflet expressed the lowest seed setting at 11.26%. Pearson’s correlation matrix analysis showed a significant positive correlation between plant size at maturity and inflorescence length. An analysis of mixed model interactions (AMMI) revealed the first interaction; principal component axis explained 53.3% of the total variation while the second axis described 46.7%. Four homogeneous groups emerged. The recombinant inbred lines have segregated for tolerance to high temperatures as evidenced by their variable seed setting rates and grain and DM yields.

A chromosome-scale reference of Chenopodium watsonii helps elucidate relationships within the North American A-genome Chenopodium species and with quinoa.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), an Andean pseudocereal, attained global popularity beginning in the early 2000s due to its protein quality, glycemic index, and high fiber, vitamin, and mineral contents. Pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri), quinoa's North American free-living sister species, grows on disturbed and sandy substrates across the North America, including saline coastal sands, southwestern deserts, subtropical highlands, the Great Plains, and boreal forests. Together with South American avian goosefoot (Chenopodium hircinum) they comprise the American tetraploid goosefoot complex (ATGC). Superimposed on pitseed goosefoot's North American range are approximately 35 AA diploids, most of which are adapted to a diversity of niche environments. We chose to assemble a reference genome for Sonoran A-genome Chenopodium watsonii due to fruit morphological and high (>99.3%) preliminary sequence-match similarities with quinoa, along with its well-established taxonomic status. The genome was assembled into 1377 scaffolds spanning 547.76 Mb (N50=55.14 Mb, L50=5), with 94% comprised in nine chromosome-scale scaffolds and 93.9% Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs genes identified as single copy and 3.4% as duplicated. A high degree of synteny, with minor and mostly telomeric rearrangements, was found when comparing this taxon with the previously reported genome of South AmericanC. pallidicaule and the A-subgenome chromosomes ofC. quinoa. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using 10,588 single-nucleotide polymorphisms generated by resequencing a panel of 41 New World AA diploid accessions and the Eurasian H-genome diploid Chenopodium vulvaria, along with three AABB tetraploids previously sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of these 32 taxa positioned the psammophyte Chenopodium subglabrum on the branch containing A-genome sequences from the ATGC. We also present evidence for long-range dispersal of Chenopodium diploids between North and South America.

Types of some Mexican names in Amaranthaceae s.l. (Caryophyllales)

The family Amaranthaceae has a cosmopolitan distribution and it is one of the most diverse families within the order Caryophyllales. Species of Amaranthaceae live mainly in arid environments, saline habitats, or disturbed areas. Nomenclature is the necessary first-step to study the members of this group, aiming to clarify their identity which is often critical. The types of four names in Amaranthaceae (sensu lato, including Chenopodiaceae)—Chenopodium berlandieri, Celosia monosperma, Iresine grandis var. glabrata, Iresine interrupta—with Mexican loci classici are designated in the present paper, including comments on their identities.

Genomic Sequence of Canadian Chenopodium berlandieri: A North American Wild Relative of Quinoa.

Chenopodium berlandieri (pitseed goosefoot) is a widespread native North American plant, which was cultivated and consumed by indigenous peoples prior to the arrival of European colonists. Chenopodium berlandieri is closely related to, and freely hybridizes with the domesticated South American food crop C. quinoa. As such it is a potential source of wild germplasm for breeding with C. quinoa, for improved quinoa production in North America. The C. berlandieri genome sequence could also be a useful source of information for improving quinoa adaptation. To this end, we first optimized barcode markers in two chloroplast genes, rbcL and matK. Together these markers can distinguish C. berlandieri from the morphologically similar Eurasian invasive C. album (lamb's quarters). Second, we performed whole genome sequencing and preliminary assembly of a C. berlandieri accession collected in Manitoba, Canada. Our assembly, while fragmented, is consistent with the expected allotetraploid structure containing diploid Chenopodium sub-genomes A and B. The genome of our accession is highly homozygous, with only one variant site per 3-4000 bases in non-repetitive sequences. This is consistent with predominant self-fertilization. As previously reported for the genome of a partly domesticated Mexican accession of C. berlandieri, our genome assembly is similar to that of C. quinoa. Somewhat unexpectedly, the genome of our accession had almost as many variant sites when compared to the Mexican C. berlandieri, as compared to C. quinoa. Despite the overall similarity of our genome sequence to that of C. quinoa, there are differences in genes known to be involved in the domestication or genetics of other food crops. In one example, our genome assembly appears to lack one functional copy of the SOS1 (salt overly sensitive 1) gene. SOS1 is involved in soil salinity tolerance, and by extension may be relevant to the adaptation of C. berlandieri to the wet climate of the Canadian region where it was collected. Our genome assembly will be a useful tool for the improved cultivation of quinoa in North America.

Studies in the vascular flora of the southeastern United States. VIII

As part of ongoing efforts to understand, document, and conserve the flora of the southeastern United States, we make new combinations to accord with our generic taxonomy, name a new hybrid, re-recognize a species relegated to synonymy in recent decades, lectotypify and generally clarify nomenclatural issues in several genera, clarify taxonomy and distributions of species, and report important new and current distribution records. In Doellingeria (Asteraceae), we clarify the taxonomy and distribution of D. sericocarpoides and D. umbellata in the region. In Trilisa (Asteraceae), we summarize and clarify the taxonomy, name a new hybrid, and present a new key to the taxa in the genus. Species delimitation in Stillingia (Euphorbiaceae) has been controversial and unsettled in the region, and we examine the confused taxonomy and nomenclature of the genus in the southeastern United States, re-recognizing a species used by J.K. Small, but with an expanded circumscription and a clarification of various nomenclatural issues. We examine typification of Desmodium dillenii (Fabaceae) and its application to our modern understanding of the circumscription of taxa, recommending it be considered a junior synonym of Desmodium glabellum. In Juncus, we assign a lectotype for Juncus anthelatus, fixing its application. In Primulaceae, we discuss the delineation of genera in Lysimachieae, and take a middle path regarding lumping/splitting, supporting the recognition of traditional and monophyletic segregates Trientalis, Steironema, Anagallis, and Centunculus, while treating Lysimachia in a moderately broad sense, including Glaux and multiple subclades; in order to implement this taxonomy in the southeastern United states, we make a single new combination in Steironema. We also discuss generic circumscription in Selaginellaceae, and argue for the recognition at genus rank of six major clades, monophyletic, ancient, and morphologically recognizable; in order to apply this taxonomy in the southeastern United States, we make five new combinations in Bryodesma, Gymnogynum, and Stachygynandrum. Finally, we report important new records of locally, regionally, or globally rare species in North Carolina: Helanthium tenellum, Chenopodium berlandieri var. macrocalycium, Carex barrattii, Carex vestita, Eleocharis compressa var. compressa, Rhynchospora compressa, Rhynchospora sulcata, and Croton michauxii.

Peronospora variabilis is associated with downy mildew of Chenopodium berlandieri in Mexico

Peronospora variabilis Gäum. was observed to be consistently associated with downy mildew of pitseed goosefoot ( Chenopodium berlandieri Moq.). Morphological characteristics of the conidiophores, conidia, and oospores of the oomycete corresponded to those of P. variabilis. The morphological identification was complemented by a phylogenetic analysis of the ITS region. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. variabilis on C. berlandieri in Mexico.

Nutritional and functional evaluation of three powder mixtures based on mexican quelites: alternative ingredients to formulate food supplements

The aim of this work was to evaluate the nutrients and antioxidant compounds of three mixtures based on leaves of Portulaca oleracea L. (P), Amaranthus hybridus L. (A) and Chenopodium berlandieri L. (C). A mixtures design was made of which 10 combinations were obtained and three of the best mixtures were selected to analysis: OP1 (P+C), OP2 (P+A) and OP3 (C+A). A macronutrient, micronutrient analysis and a HPLC profile of phenolic compounds and amino acids were performed; in addition, in vitro antioxidant activity was measured by DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays. Results showed that OP1 has a greater content of phenolic compounds, as evidenced by increases in antioxidant activity. Proximal chemical analysis showed that OP3 has a higher protein content and dietary fiber. The main phenolic compound present was phloridzin in OP1 and OP3; on the other hand, the amino acids lysine and glutamic acid were present at high concentrations in the three mixtures. These results showed that the OP1 mixture has the best antioxidant and nutritional properties; therefore, it has the potential to be included as an ingredient in food systems or nutraceutical and biomedical applications.

Nixtamalized tortillas supplemented with proteins isolated from Phaseolus coccineus and huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. Nuttalliae) flour: Rheological, textural, and sensorial properties

The maize tortilla, as a food that is present in the diet of many people in Mexico and Central America, is a source of carbohydrates and protein. To develop new flavors and increase the nutritional quality of nixtamalized maize tortillas, in this work tortillas supplemented with proteins isolated from the scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus L.) (PC) and huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae) (HF) flour were produced, and their nutritional, rheological, sensorial, and textural properties were evaluated. Tortillas with different concentrations of PC and HF (0–10%) were evaluated in a completely randomized design. Tortillas with up to 17% of protein content were obtained when 10% of PC was added. The masas supplemented with up to 5% PC and 5% HF presented good machinability characteristics. The rheological characteristics of all obtained masas displayed similarities; however, with higher protein content the storage module was slightly modified. The tortilla supplemented with up to 2.5% PC had good sensorial acceptability (“I like it a lot”), with values similar to the nixtamalized maize tortilla. The use of proteins isolated from the scarlet runner bean and huauzontle flour allows increasing the nutritional value of the tortilla without significantly affecting in rheological, textural, and sensorial characteristics.

Experimental Cultivation of Eastern North America's Lost Crops: Insights into Agricultural Practice and Yield Potential

Since the 1930s, archaeologists have been accumulating data on the lost crops of eastern North America. These are a group of annual plants (Chenopodium berlandieri, Hordeum pusillum, Iva annua, Phalaris caroliniana, and Polygonum erectum) that were cultivated by Indigenous societies for thousands of years. No published written or oral histories attest to the methods used in their cultivation, and their domesticated forms are thought to be extinct. The potentials and constraints of this agricultural system can only be reconstructed experimentally. We report two experiments designed to investigate germinability, phenology, and yield, which resulted in yield estimates for two of the lost crops, goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.) and erect knotweed (Polygonum erectum). A polyculture of these two crops is more productive than either grown as a monoculture, higher yielding than global averages for closely related domesticated crops, and comparable to yields for traditionally grown maize (Zea mays). We also report several novel insights into germination requirements and phenology for all five lost crops that contribute to a more accurate reconstruction of this crop complex. However, we failed to answer several of our research questions, and instead came away with many new questions. Obtaining seed is merely a necessary pre-condition for raising a crop. Without guidance from experienced cultivators, best practices must be developed over the course of many growing seasons. Experimentation with crop progenitors is necessary to fully understand the dynamics of ancient agroecosystems and their interaction with ecological knowledge systems.

Incorporating Chenopodium berlandieri into a Seasonal Subsistence Pattern: Implications of Biological Traits for Cultural Choices.

Local ecological knowledge of culturally important plants informed food choices by Indigenous peoples across North America. Recovery of such knowledge through ecological and genetic studies of contemporary populations increases understanding of variation in seasonal availability and economic value, potentially enhancing interpretation of the archaeobotanical record. We compared habitat, seed yield, and nutritional value of seed in up to ten wild populations of net-seed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) from four survey regions in Manitoba, North Dakota, Missouri, and Ohio with evidence of pre-contact cultivation and domestication of C. berlandieri. We assessed cultivation impacts and variation in seasonal timing by growing seed from three Manitoban populations in two common gardens. Population density, plant size, and seed yield increased sixfold from north (Manitoba) to south (Ohio) in wild populations, with genetic differences between Manitoban populations remaining evident in gardens. However, cultivation (e.g., watering, weeding) in well-worked soil extended timing of seed harvest and increased seed yield beyond the range of wild populations. Nutritional profiles from five populations were similar across the survey regions but differed from domesticated quinoa in their higher fiber and slightly lower energy content. Our results suggest that both plasticity and genetic factors influence productivity of C. berlandieri populations as a seed source. Genetic variation in seasonal timing would have provided choice between populations and flexibility in incorporating C. berlandieri into a seasonal subsistence strategy. Simple cultivation techniques would have substantially increased yield, thereby enhancing reliability and economic returns.

New seed collections of North American pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) and efforts to identify its diploid ancestors through whole-genome sequencing

Pitseed goosefoot ( Chenopodium berlandieri ) is an ecologically diverse wild/weedy North American species within the primary gene pool for improving South American quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa ). Both taxa are 36-chromosome allotetraploids with subgenomes AA and BB. The A genome is found in a large number of diploids in the Americas, along with one Northeast Asian taxon, and was recently shown to be the maternal ancestor, while the paternal B genome is closely related to several extant Eurasian diploids. Two of our primary objectives were 1) to determine the extent of genetic diversity in the allotetraploid C. berlandieri-quinoahircinum complex and 2) to characterize the evolutionary path from polyploidization to domestication in these taxa. In an effort to survey genetic diversity, in 2018, we made seed collections of southern Texas, southern Great Plains, and New England coastal ecotypes of C. berlandieri as well as sympatric diploids. With respect to the second goal, we performed wholegenome sequencing of two Sonoran Desert Chenopodium A-genome diploids in subsection Cellulata and Andean cultivated C. pallidicaule in subsection Leiosperma . When paired reads were aligned to the whole-genome reference of C. quinoa strain ‘QQ74’, the match percentages were 99.31, 99.23, and 98.53 for C. watsonii , C. sonorense , and C. pallidicaule , respectively. These data strongly support C. watsonii as being the most closely related of these three species to the A-genome ancestor of quinoa. Ongoing sequencing efforts with a larger panel of diploids are aimed at identifying the maternal ancestor of C. quinoa and C. berlandieri , if extant.

Physicochemical, nutritional and antioxidant characterization of three vegetables (Amaranthus hybridus L., Chenopodium berlandieri L., Portulaca oleracea L.) as potential sources of phytochemicals and bioactive compounds

The aim of this work was the characterization of three endemic plant species [quelite cenizo and quintonil (quelites), and purslane], from Mexico, in terms of their physicochemical, nutritional and antioxidant properties. These species are highly used by rural populations in their local dishes. Nevertheless, scarce information exists about their nutritional and functional properties. The experimental included physicochemical properties, nutrimental composition, qualitative and quantitative analysis of antioxidants by HPLC. The results showed that purslane was the sample with the highest concentration of total carotenoids (2.85 mg/g DW), and with the highest antioxidant activity by DPPH and FRAP methods. Quelite cenizo and purslane displayed similar values for antioxidant activity by ABTS method, nevertheless, the former showed higher values for total phenolics (10.24 mg GAE/g DW) and flavonoids (17.57 mg QE/g DW) content than the latter. Finally, quintonil showed similar results for total chlorophyll (70.50 mg/g DW) and protein (3.65 g/100 g FW) to those found in quelite cenizo. The contents of Fe, Ca, and Mg were higher in quintonil, meanwhile the contents of P, K and Zn were higher in quelite cenizo. The analysis by HPLC also showed the presence of ferulic, and chlorogenic acids as the most abundant phenolic acids, meanwhile rutin and phloridzin were the main flavonoids in the quelites, displaying higher contents than in the purslane. Therefore, it can be assumed that these samples possess high nutritional quality and could be considered for their use in strategies to improve food security in rural populations.

Archaic Period Domesticated Plants in the Mid-Ohio Valley

Abstract Late Archaic archaeobotanical remains from the County Home site (33AT40), southeastern Ohio, are described. Measurements of chenopod (Chenopodium berlandieri) seed-coat thicknesses and marshelder (Iva annua) achene and kernel lengths from the site are indicative of domesticated types (ssp. jonesianum and var. macrocarpa, respectively) dating to ca. 3000 B.P. to 3600 B.P. Together, these specimens represent some of the earliest evidence of plant domestication outside the oak-hickory and oak-savannah forests of eastern North America. The recovery of these plants with other cultigens in hearths and earth ovens at the County Home site indicates that the timing for the arrival of the Initial Crop Complex in the Appalachian mixed forest of the middle Ohio Valley occurred earlier than previously documented. The results of this research contribute to the growing database of early plant domestication and a broader understanding of the origins of food production.

Heritabilities of morphological and quality traits and interrelationships with yield in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) genotypes in the Mediterranean environment

Twenty-five germplasm lines of Chenopodium quinoa, four of Chenopodium giganteum and one of Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae from different origins were evaluated for seed yield and morphological and quality traits in the southern Italy environment over a 2-year period. The aim was to select superior genotypes for production and quality traits that are well adapted to the Mediterranean climate. Significant variations were seen for all of the traits among these genotypes. Seed yield ranged from 0.11 t ha−1 to 3.05 t ha−1, with higher yields for 10 Chilean lines. Seed protein ranged from 15.8% to 19.8%, and total dietary fibre ranged from 9.4% to 21.3%. Seed yellow pigment concentration ranged from 10 μg g−1 to 18 μg g−1. Heritability estimates were relatively high for almost all of the traits considered, although the highest heritability was obtained for seed insoluble dietary fibre (0.94) and yellow pigment concentration (0.92). All of the morphological traits except ‘days to flowering’ and ‘days to maturity’ showed significant positive associations with seed yield, while the quality traits were negatively correlated with seed yield. The results indicate the superior genotypes that can be used directly as parents in future selection programmes for the development of high-yielding varieties that are well adapted to the Mediterranean environment.

Archaic Period Domesticated Plants in the Mid-Ohio Valley: Archaeobotanical Remains from the County Home Site (33at40), Southeastern Ohio

Late Archaic archaeobotanical remains from the County Home site (33AT40), southeastern Ohio, are described. Measurements of chenopod (Chenopodium berlandieri) seed-coat thicknesses and marshelder (Iva annua) achene and kernel lengths from the site are indicative of domesticated types (ssp. jonesianum and var. macrocarpa, respectively) dating to ca. 3000 B.P. to 3600 B.P. Together, these specimens represent some of the earliest evidence of plant domestication outside the oak-hickory and oak-savannah forests of eastern North America. The recovery of these plants with other cultigens in hearths and earth ovens at the County Home site indicates that the timing for the arrival of the Initial Crop Complex in the Appalachian mixed forest of the middle Ohio Valley occurred earlier than previously documented. The results of this research contribute to the growing database of early plant domestication and a broader understanding of the origins of food production.