Cheese Whey Processing Research Articles

Yeast cell factories for sustainable whey-to-ethanol valorisation towards a circular economy

Cheese whey is the major by-product of the dairy industry, and its disposal constitutes an environmental concern. The production of cheese whey has been increasing, with 190 million tonnes per year being produced nowadays. Therefore, it is emergent to consider different routes for cheese whey utilization. The great nutritional value of cheese whey turns it into an attractive substrate for biotechnological applications. Currently, cheese whey processing includes a protein fractionating step that originates the permeate, a lactose-reach stream further used for valorisation. In the last decades, yeast fermentation has brought several advances to the search for biorefinery alternatives. From the plethora of value-added products that can be obtained from cheese whey, ethanol is the most extensively explored since it is the alternative biofuel most used worldwide. Thus, this review focuses on the different strategies for ethanol production from cheese whey using yeasts as promising biological systems, including its integration in lignocellulosic biorefineries. These valorisation routes encompass the improvement of the fermentation process as well as metabolic engineering techniques for the introduction of heterologous pathways, resorting mainly to Kluyveromyces sp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. The solutions and challenges of the several strategies will be unveiled and explored in this review.

Cheese Whey Processing: Integrated Biorefinery Concepts and Emerging Food Applications.

Cheese whey constitutes one of the most polluting by-products of the food industry, due to its high organic load. Thus, in order to mitigate the environmental concerns, a large number of valorization approaches have been reported; mainly targeting the recovery of whey proteins and whey lactose from cheese whey for further exploitation as renewable resources. Most studies are predominantly focused on the separate implementation, either of whey protein or lactose, to configure processes that will formulate value-added products. Likewise, approaches for cheese whey valorization, so far, do not exploit the full potential of cheese whey, particularly with respect to food applications. Nonetheless, within the concept of integrated biorefinery design and the transition to circular economy, it is imperative to develop consolidated bioprocesses that will foster a holistic exploitation of cheese whey. Therefore, the aim of this article is to elaborate on the recent advances regarding the conversion of whey to high value-added products, focusing on food applications. Moreover, novel integrated biorefining concepts are proposed, to inaugurate the complete exploitation of cheese whey to formulate novel products with diversified end applications. Within the context of circular economy, it is envisaged that high value-added products will be reintroduced in the food supply chain, thereby enhancing sustainability and creating “zero waste” processes.

Optimization of Cheese Whey Ultrafltration/Diafltration for the Production of Beverage Liquid Protein Concentrates with Lactose Partially Removed

The processing of cheese whey pre-concentrated by reverse osmosis is carried out through ultrafiltration in diafiltration mode to produce whey protein concentrates with lower lactose content to be incorporated in beverages. The initial cheese whey protein and lactose contents are 2.13g/100g and 13.22g/100g, respectively.The commercial membranes, GR95PP, supplied by Alfa Laval, Denmark, were characterized in terms of a hydraulic permeability of 1.21 l/(h∙m^2∙bar) and a molecular weight cut-off of 7500 Dalton. The permeation tests were carried out in a plate and frame Lab-Unit 20 from Alfa Laval, Denmark, and a membrane surface area of 0.072 m2 was installed.The ultrafiltration of cheese whey in total recirculation mode yielded two asymptotic variations of the permeate fluxes versus the transmembrane pressure. For operating pressures up to 12 bar the permeate flux increases linearly with the pressure. Then, with the increasing pressure, they deviate from linearity and reach a limiting flux of 8.79 l/(h∙m^2∙bar) at 30 bar. The slope of the asymptotic linear variation is 0.48 l/(h∙m^2∙bar). To have minimal effects of concentration polarization the operating pressure was set-up at 12 bar.The optimization of ultrafiltration/diafiltration was carried out in terms of the volumetric concentration factors and the frequency of diavolumes addition. At a volumetric concentration factor of 1.32 the lactose content decreased from 13.22% to 5.7%.

Importance of Cheese Whey Processing: Supplements for Sports Activities – a Review

Importance of Cheese Whey Processing: Supplements for Sports Activities – a Review

Production of phage free cheese whey: Design of a tubular laboratory membrane filtration system and assessment of a feasibility study

An interposed “phage filtration” process step is proposed prior to subsequent processing of cheese whey to whey products to reduce fermentation risks due to phage contamination. At laboratory scale, the characteristics of three single tube ceramic membranes on the filtration performance in terms of phage retention, protein transmission and filtrate flux were analysed. From these tested membranes, a 0.1 μm microfiltration membrane was found to be suitable for significant phage reduction (3.4 log units) in cheese whey, simultaneously allowing total protein transmission of 56.2%. The experiments within the designed feasibility study conducted with a pilot plant microfiltration system provided a higher phage retention (4.1 log units) and a significantly increased transmission of major whey proteins (up to 84%) in comparison with the laboratory plant. The results shown in this study can easily be adapted by the dairy industry for better phage control and enhanced process safety.

Composition and functionality of whey protein phospholipid concentrate and delactosed permeate

Whey protein phospholipid concentrate (WPPC) and delactosed permeate (DLP) are 2 coproducts of cheese whey processing that are currently underused. Past research has shown that WPPC and DLP can be used together as a functional dairy ingredient in foods such as ice cream, soup, and caramel. However, the scope of the research has been limited to 1 WPPC supplier. The objective of this research was to fully characterize a range of WPPC. Four WPPC samples and 1 DLP sample were analyzed for chemical composition and functionality. This analysis showed that WPPC composition was highly variable between suppliers and lots. In addition, the functionality of the WPPC varies depending on the supplier and testing pH, and cannot be correlated with fat or protein content because of differences in processing. The addition of DLP to WPPC affects functionality. In general, WPPC has a high water-holding capacity, is relatively heat stable, has low foamability, and does not aid in emulsion stability. The gel strength and texture are highly dependent on the amount of protein. To be able to use these 2 dairy products, the composition and functionality must be fully understood.

Whey protein phospholipid concentrate and delactosed permeate: Applications in caramel, ice cream, and cake

Whey protein phospholipid concentrate (WPPC) and delactosed permeate (DLP) are 2 coproducts of cheese whey processing that are currently underutilized. Past research has shown that WPPC and DLP can be used together as a functional dairy ingredient in foods such as ice cream, soup, and caramel. However, the scope of the research has been limited to a single WPPC supplier. The variability of the composition and functionality of WPPC was previously studied. The objective of this research was to expand on the previous study and examine the potential applications of WPPC and DLP blends in foods. In ice cream, WPPC was added as a natural emulsifier to replace synthetic emulsifiers. The WPPC decreased the amount of partially coalesced fat and increased the drip-through rate. In caramel, DLP and WPPC replaced sweetened condensed skim milk and lecithin. Cold flow increased significantly, and hardness and stickiness decreased. In cake, DLP and WPPC were added as a total replacement of eggs, with no change in yield, color, or texture. Overall, WPPC and DLP can be utilized as functional dairy ingredients at a lower cost in ice cream and cake but not in chewy caramel.

Cheese whey tangential filtration using tubular mineral membranes

AbstractMembrane separation techniques are extensively used in dairy industry both for milk and cheese whey processing. However, cheese whey might still be considered as a problematic waste despite its high content of many valuable substances, such as proteins, lactose or minerals, which can be further used, e.g. in human nutrition, pharmacy or biotechnologies. Another problem, which food technologists have to face, is variable quality, composition and properties of food materials bringing high demands on manufacturing industry. In this paper, filtration kinetics and separation efficiency during purification and fractionation of cheese whey (sweet and salty) from Czech dairies by pilot-plant filtration (Bollene, France) was studied using tubular membranes (Membralox, USA). Various mineral membranes’ cut-offs were tested and all experiments ran in the retentate recycling mode. The obtained mass concentration factors were between 1.9 and 16.5. Steady state fluxes were calculated from the experimental data using a mathematical model. Fine ultrafiltration on a 5 kDa membrane gave steady state fluxes of 14-19 L m

Enhancing bioethanol production from delactosed whey permeate by upstream desalination techniques

Industrial cheese whey processing comprises generally the isolation of proteins and lactose, but the economic use for the residual molasses, the so‐called delactosed whey permeate (DWP), is still to be improved. One possibility to maximize valorization and to minimize waste water treatment is the conversion of the remaining lactose in the DWP to ethanol by the yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus. This fermentation process depends strongly on the total ash content of the DWP, as high salt concentrations inhibit yeast metabolism. Here, three different approaches were tested to lower the DWP salt content: (i) simple dilution; (ii) nanofiltration; and (iii) electrodialysis. Lactose consumption, ethanol production and time‐dependent yields were compared between the three methods. A dilution of DWP to 60% v/v led to fermentation taking less than 80 h and yield above 7% AbV (alcohol by volume). After nanofiltration, 7.5% AbV was produced in about 80 h, and after electrodialysis, 11% AbV was produced in about 52 h. On the one hand the technical treatments (nanofiltration and electrodialysis) led to enhanced productivity in the fermentations, but, on the other hand, elaborate and extensive preprocessing is needed. Overall, ethanol production from DWP could be enhanced by prior partial desalination.

Fate of aflatoxin M1 in cheese whey processing

AbstractAflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is an important mycotoxin frequently found in milk and in dairy products. It is a minor metabolic product of Aspergillus flavus and A parasiticus. However, it occurs in dairy products as a metabolite formed in cows from aflatoxin B1 contained in animal feeds. In cheese production, AFM1 distributes between curd and whey, being present in products derived from cheese whey processing. In this study, cheese whey from dairy processing was artificially contaminated with the mycotoxin at about 0.1 µg l−1. Ultra‐filtration experiments of whey were carried out in order to determinate AFM1 distribution between retentate (protein‐rich fraction) and permeate (lactose‐rich fraction). Recoveries of AFM1 in retentate were 72.6–86.4% while, in permeate, recoveries were in the range 2.4–14.7%. Partition coefficients of AFM1, lactose and protein were calculated to determine whether there was an interaction between AFM1 and protein. In all experiments, AFM1 partition coefficient was lower than 1, whilst for lactose coefficients close to 1 were determined, showing an affinity of aflatoxin M1 to the protein‐rich fraction (retentate). Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry

Utilisation of cheese whey as an alternative growth medium for recombinant strains of Kluyveromyces marxianus

Kluyveromyces marxianus KMDB-1, a plasmid-bearing recombinant, not carrying any particular gene of relevance, derived from auxotrophic strain KMS-2 (ura−), grew in cheese whey with a maximum specific growth rate of 0.34 h−1. This recombinant strain showed the same lactose uptake and extracellular protease production kinetics as the wild type CBS6556 with no evidence of catabolite repression. The plasmid was retained in 50% of cells after 36 h of batch culture. The presence of this vector in Kluyveromyces marxianus, which possesses no natural plasmids, together with the absence of any metabolic loading effect, creates a suitable microbial system for cheese whey processing for potential value-added product formation.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE MECHANISM OF FLUX DECLINE DURING ULTRAFILTRATION OF COTTAGE CHEESE WHEY

The mechanism of fouling of ultrafiltration membranes during the processing of cheese whey was studied. Attempts were made to develop a mathematical model of the flux decline and to determine the contribution of individual proteins and the aqueous environment to fouling. In general, proteins dissolved in a salt-free system resulted in higher flux than in whey dialysate systems, implicating the salts as a major contributor to flux decline. Statistical analysis and evaluation of the parameters of the model indicated that fouling could be considered in two time periods. In the initial period of operation, α-lactalbumin appeared to cause greater flux decline and bovine serum albumin the least. After 10 min of operation, β-lactoglobulin was the major contributor to fouling. The native whey gave the most rapid rate of flux decline. These differences could be due to variations in protein structure or differences in the nature of the deposit on the membrane.

Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration of Cottage Cheese Whey: Performance Study

The operation of hollow fiber ultrafiltration systems is discussed. Critical factors of fiber diameter, transmembrane pressure, pH, temperature, diafiltration, and cleanability are discussed for XM50 and PM10 hollow fiber ultrafiltration membranes in cottage cheese whey processing. While each membrane has its own particular characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, the 45 mil XM50 fiber, with 26.5 ft2 of membrane area (43 in long fibers) is considered to be the optimal fiber for most cheese whey applications.

Feasibility Evaluation of Cheese Whey Processing in Small Plants

Abstract Economics of drum drying, evaporation, and manufacture of whey cheese (mysost) were evaluated for small cheese plants with 3000 to 25,000 kg whey per day. Costs of drying and condensing increase in proportion to decreasing plant size with equipment depreciation contributing a major part of total operating costs for the smallest plants. In plants with 15,000 to 25,000 kg whey per day this equipment cost is lower than the sewage surcharge penalty incurred by dumping the untreated whey. Manufacture of mysost cheese appears to be the best economic alternative for all plants. The high cost of ingredient dairy cream in the mysost diminishes the economy of scale disadvantage for the smallest plants.