Cheek Temperature Research Articles

The blushing brain: neural substrates of cheek temperature increase in response to self-observation.

Darwin proposed that blushing-the reddening of the face owing to heightened self-awareness-is 'the most human of all expressions'. Yet, relatively little is known about the underlying mechanisms of blushing. Theories diverge on whether it is a rapid, spontaneous emotional response that does not involve reflection upon the self or whether it results from higher-order socio-cognitive processes. Investigating the neural substrates of blushing can shed light on the mental processes underlying blushing and the mechanisms involved in self-awareness. To reveal neural activity associated with blushing, 16-20 year-old participants (n = 40) watched pre-recorded videos of themselves (versus other people as a control condition) singing karaoke in a magnetic resonance imaging scanner. We measured participants' cheek temperature increase-an indicator of blushing-and their brain activity. The results showed that blushing is higher when watching oneself versus others sing. Those who blushed more while watching themselves sing had, on average, higher activation in the cerebellum (lobule V) and the left paracentral lobe and exhibited more time-locked processing of the videos in early visual cortices. These findings show that blushing is associated with the activation of brain areas involved in emotional arousal, suggesting that it may occur independently of higher-order socio-cognitive processes. Our results provide new avenues for future research on self-awareness in infants and non-human animals.

Occupant-centric cabin thermal sensation assessment system based on low-cost thermal imaging

Assessing cabin occupants' thermal sensation in real-time enables automatic control of car air conditioning, improving driving safety and energy efficiency. Traditional methods, limited by their need for numerous physiological parameters, have restricted practicality. For this purpose, this study employs a low-cost thermal imaging sensor as the hardware core to establish a cost-effective and non-contact real-time assessment system for the thermal comfort of occupants within a cabin. The system comprises a thermal sensation assessment model developed based on subject experiments, along with facial recognition and segmentation algorithms optimized for thermal images. The thermal sensation assessment model developed, which employs cheek temperature, solar radiation intensity, and cabin air temperature as its features, exhibited an R2 of 0.617 on the test set. Furthermore, the facial recognition algorithm established for thermographic imaging achieved a mean accuracy of 96.5% and a recall rate of 99.0%. The system underwent validation in real-world vehicle environments, proving its ability to accurately detect and measure the cheek temperatures of occupants in the cabin and execute thermal sensation assessments. With a mean absolute error of 0.5 thermal sensation units in its output, its accuracy in practical applications was affirmed. This research provides an effective solution for automatically adjusting cabin air conditioning.

Effect of temperature step-changes and ramps on physiological and psychological responses of occupants in office buildings in summer

Thermal conditions with step changes and ramps in air temperature (Ta) are universal in buildings. However, a comprehensive understanding of the influences of these dynamic thermal factors on thermal comfort remains elusive. This study investigated the physiological and psychological responses 16 healthy college students, including thermal sensation vote (TSV), thermal pleasure (TP), positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS), skin temperature, blood pressure, wrist pulse, and electroencephalography (EEG). The experimental procedure included step-changes from an office room (26 °C) to a meeting room under five different Ta (22/24/26/28/30 °C) and subsequent ramping (down/up/cycles) back to 26 °C. After these different warm/cool thermal experiences, TSVs (−0.2 to 0.2) were insignificantly different and TPs (0.2–1.6) were significantly different (P = 0.006) at neutral condition of 26 °C. Specifically, TPs under neutral conditions were higher after a warmer thermal experience than after a cooler thermal experience. Under the same Ta, TSVs were significantly lower (P = 0.031) by approximately 0.5, when Ta ramping down compared to ramping up and stable warm conditions. The cheek temperature showed stronger correlations with TP and PANAS scores than with other body parts. The blood pressure was weakly correlated with TSV but exhibited a strong relationship with TP. Moreover, the TP and positive emotions exhibited strong negative correlations with wrist pulses and EEG at Theta (4–8 Hz). These findings offer insights into refining the prevailing thermal comfort models when considering dynamic thermal factors in shaping thermal perceptions.

Assessing children's outdoor thermal comfort with facial expression recognition: An efficient approach using machine learning

In this study, children's physiological indices and facial expressions during activities with distinct intensities in outdoor open spaces were real-timely measured. Correspondingly, meteorological measurements and questionnaire surveys were conducted to explore change laws of children's physiological feedback, facial expressions, and subjective perception. Then, a predictive model of children's outdoor thermal sensations was built with the coupling relations of physiological indices and facial expressions. Results showed that the skin temperature on the face tended to increase as thermal stress increased but gradually declined with increasing activity intensity. Mean ear skin temperature (Tear) was the most sensitive, followed by mean cheek temperature (Tcheek). When conducting moderate and vigorous intensity activities, the heart rate (HR) increased significantly within 5 min of exercise and then stabilized. The HR increase in vigorous intensity activities was greater than that during moderate intensity activities. With an increase in thermal stress and activity intensity, the proportion of negative emotions (NegEmo) in facial expressions gradually increased. Sadness and disgust expressions both increased significantly, followed by fear and anger. Thus, Tear and NegEmo expressed facially were important indices to predict children's outdoor thermal sensation. Finally, the predictive model for children's outdoor thermal sensation based on facial expressions, Tear, and HR allowed for non-invasive data collection was built integrating machine learning, and its accuracy reached as high as 97.1 %. Our results propose a faster feedback method for children's thermal perception based on facial expression recognition, which can real-timely monitor thermal comfort for children, ensuring their outdoor thermal health and safety.

Potential use of an extended-distance thermal imaging camera for the assessment of thermal comfort in multi-occupant spaces

Thermographic cameras integrated with artificial intelligence (AI) models have recently become widespread to assess thermal comfort via extracted facial skin temperature. The study aimed to examine the potential use of camera-extracted facial skin temperature to predict thermal sensation for a group of people. To deal with the limitations of previous works, this study extended the camera-subject distance, enabling the detection of multiple faces facing different orientations. Thermal sensation and thermographic data were collected from 32 subjects under transient conditions, where the air temperature gradually changed between 21 °C and 29 °C. The relationship between their subjective votes and extracted skin temperatures across five facial regions and the whole face was analyzed. Using analysis of variance, results showed that the facial skin temperatures at each sensation scale were significant differences and provided a good prediction for the 3-point thermal sensation scale. The right cheek temperature was the most potential predictor of human thermal sensation, while the forehead temperature was less accurate due to noise interference. The proposed method is cost-effective and acceptably assesses thermal comfort for multi-occupant spaces.

Effects of Face Masks on Physiological Parameters and Voice Production during Cycling Activity.

This study investigates the effects of face masks on physiological and voice parameters, focusing on cyclists that perform incremental sports activity. Three healthy male subjects were monitored in a climatic chamber wearing three types of masks with different acoustic properties, breathing resistance, and air filtration performance. Masks A and B were surgical masks made of hydrophobic fabric and three layers of non-woven fabric of 100% polypropylene, respectively. Mask S was a multilayer cloth mask designed for sports activity. Mask B and Mask S behave similarly and show lower sound attenuation and sound transmission loss and lower breathing resistance than Mask A, although Mask A exhibits slightly higher filtration efficiency. Similar cheek temperatures were observed for Masks A and B, while a significantly higher temperature was measured with Mask S at incremental physical activity. No differences were found between the masks and the no-mask condition for voice monitoring. Overall, Mask B and Mask S are suitable for sports activities without adverse effects on voice production while ensuring good breathing resistance and filtration efficiency. These outcomes support choosing appropriate masks for sports activities, showing the best trade-off between breathing resistance and filtration efficiency, sound attenuation, and sound transmission loss.

Driver drowsiness detection using facial thermal imaging in a driving simulator.

Driver drowsiness causes fatal driving accidents. Thermal imaging is a suitable drowsiness detection method as it is non-invasive and robust against changes in the ambient light. In this paper, driver drowsiness is detected by measuring the forehead temperature at the region covering the supratrochlear artery and also the cheek temperature. About 30 subjects drove on a highway in a driving simulator in two sessions. A thermal camera was used to monitor the facial temperature pattern. The subjects' drowsiness levels were estimated by three human observers. The forehead and the cheek regions were located and tracked in each frame. The forehead and the cheek skin temperatures were obtained at three levels of drowsiness. The Support Vector Machine, the K-Nearest Neighbor, and the regression tree classifiers were used. From wakefulness to extreme drowsiness, the forehead skin temperature and the absolute cheek-forehead skin temperature gradient decreased by 0.46°C and 0.81°C, respectively. But the cheek skin temperature increased by 0.35°C in two sessions. The gradient difference is on average 50% higher than the forehead or the cheek temperature change alone. The results indicate that drowsiness can be detected with an accuracy of 82%, sensitivity of 85%, specificity of 90%, and precision of 84%. Driver drowsiness can be detected by monitoring changes in the forehead and the cheek temperature signal. Also, the temperature gradient can be used as a more robust and sensitive indicator of drowsiness.

Effect of milk allowance on the suitability of automated behavioural and physiological measures as early disease indicators in calves

This study investigated the effect of milk allowance on the suitability of behavioural and physiological responses, individually and in combination, as early disease indicators. A total of 120 heifer calves were assigned into a 5 L/d or 10 L/d milk allowance treatment group. Daily health checks were conducted to determine when calves presented clinical signs of neonatal calf diarrhoea (NCD). Automated calf feeders recorded milk feeding behaviour, and infrared cameras automatically recorded eye and cheek temperatures. Accelerometers recorded lying behaviour, and water drinking behaviour was recorded using an automated water system and video observations. Respiration rate was recorded once per day by counting flank movements. Calves were used as their own controls, with data analysed relative to the day of clinical identification (d 0). Based on changes which occurred over the 6 days prior to clinical signs of disease (across d -6 to 0), typically, feeding behaviours only changed significantly for calves on the 10 L/d milk allowance with an increase in total (P < 0.001) and rewarded visits to the feeder (P = 0.013), and a decrease in milk consumption (P = 0.011). Infrared temperatures only changed significantly prior to clinical signs for calves on the 5 L/d milk allowance, with a decrease in eye (P = 0.013) and cheek (P = 0.006) temperatures. Regardless of milk allowance, lying time (P = 0.028, 5- L/d; P = 0.011, 10 L/d), number of lying bouts (P < 0.001, 5 L/d; P = 0.007, 10 L/d), and average bout duration (P < 0.001, 5 L/d; P = 0.002, 10 L/d), changed significantly prior to clinical signs. The only significant change in water drinking behaviour prior to clinical signs was an increase in total trough visit duration for calves on the 5 L/d milk allowance (P = 0.029). Respiration rate showed no significant change prior to clinical signs regardless of milk allowance. For calves on the 10 L/d and 5 L/d milk allowances, the most suitable indicator of disease was the total number of visits to the feeder (P < 0.001) and the number of lying bouts (P < 0.001), respectively. Regardless of milk allowance, combinations of feeding and lying behaviours, and additionally infrared temperatures in the case of calves on the 5 L/d milk allowance, provided the strongest composite indicators of disease. Overall, results suggest milk allowance can influence the suitability of behavioural and physiological responses as early disease indicators. Milk allowance should be considered when determining which measures will act as the optimum indicator/s when developing and implementing algorithms into automated on-farm systems for disease detection.

The effectiveness of a patakara device in improving oral function and quality of life in people with intellectual disabilities

Background: Better labial closure strength (LCS) may improve eating, swallowing, and quality of life. Patakara is an efficient device to enhance lip strength. In this study, we analyzed differences in LCS and quality of life between before and after training with Patakara in people with intellectual disabilities. Methods: We recruited twenty participants with intellectual disabilities who had poor eating status, lower LCS, or poor oral hygiene status. These participants performed training using Patakara three times a day (3 min each time for five times/week) for 3 months. Oral examination was performed twice, and structural questionnaires and lip force measurements were performed five times. Cheek temperature was also recorded. Results: The maximum value of lip force showed a significant increase during the 3-month training period. In addition, the proportion of participants who kept food in the mouth for a long time when eating significantly reduced. Moreover, the physical functioning and mental health scores of SF-36 showed a significant increase. Conclusions: Patakara training effectively increased lip muscle strength and improved dietary function. Nevertheless, further studies with a longer training duration to investigate the long-term effects of Patakara training are needed.

Automated Collection and Analysis of Infrared Thermograms for Measuring Eye and Cheek Temperatures in Calves.

Simple SummaryIn response to an increasing shift towards automation in the livestock industry, it is important that, as automated systems are developed, they include the capability for automated monitoring of animal health and welfare. As an alternative to current manual methods, this study reports on the development and validation of an algorithm for automated detection and analysis of the eye and cheek regions from thermal infrared images collected automatically from calves. Such algorithms are essential for the integration of infrared thermography (IRT) technology into automated systems to noninvasively monitor calf health and welfare. As the reliance upon automated systems in the livestock industry increases, technologies need to be developed which can be incorporated into these systems to monitor animal health and welfare. Infrared thermography (IRT) is one such technology that has been used for monitoring animal health and welfare and, through automation, has the potential to be integrated into automated systems on-farm. This study reports on an automated system for collecting thermal infrared images of calves and on the development and validation of an algorithm capable of automatically detecting and analysing the eye and cheek regions from those images. Thermal infrared images were collected using an infrared camera integrated into an automated calf feeder. Images were analysed automatically using an algorithm developed to determine the maximum eye and cheek (3 × 3-pixel and 9 × 9-pixel areas) temperatures in a given image. Additionally, the algorithm determined the maximum temperature of the entire image (image maximum temperature). In order to validate the algorithm, a subset of 350 images analysed using the algorithm were also analysed manually. Images analysed using the algorithm were highly correlated with manually analysed images for maximum image (R2 = 1.00), eye (R2 = 0.99), cheek 3 × 3-pixel (R2 = 0.85) and cheek 9 × 9-pixel (R2 = 0.90) temperatures. These findings demonstrate the algorithm to be a suitable method of analysing the eye and cheek regions from thermal infrared images. Validated as a suitable method for automatically detecting and analysing the eye and cheek regions from thermal infrared images, the integration of IRT into automated on-farm systems has the potential to be implemented as an automated method of monitoring calf health and welfare.

Vascular response to social cognitive performance measured by infrared thermography: A translational study from mouse to man.

To assess complex social recognition in mice, we previously developed the SocioBox paradigm. Unexpectedly, 4 weeks after performing in the SocioBox, mice displayed robust social avoidance during Y‐maze sociability testing. This unique “sociophobia” acquisition could be documented in independent cohorts. We therefore employed infrared thermography as a non‐invasive method of stress‐monitoring during SocioBox testing (presentation of five other mice) versus empty box. A higher Centralization Index (body/tail temperature) in the SocioBox correlated negatively with social recognition memory and, after 4 weeks, with social preference in the Y‐maze. Assuming that social stimuli might be associated with characteristic thermo‐responses, we exposed healthy men (N = 103) with a comparably high intelligence level to a standardized test session including two cognitive tests with or without social component (face versus pattern recognition). In some analogy to the Centralization Index (within‐subject measure) used in mice, the Reference Index (ratio nose/malar cheek temperature) was introduced to determine the autonomic facial response/flushing during social recognition testing. Whereas cognitive performance and salivary cortisol were comparable across human subjects and tests, the Face Recognition Test was associated with a characteristic Reference Index profile. Infrared thermography may have potential for discriminating disturbed social behaviors.

Evaluation of infrared thermography compared to rectal temperature to identify illness in early postpartum dairy cows

This study evaluated and compared infrared thermography (IRT) and rectal temperature (RT) as screening tests to identify sick transition dairy cows. Holstein cows (n = 72; 42 primiparous) had RT and IRT temperatures taken daily from 1 to 12 days in milk (DIM). Health examinations were performed daily to diagnose retained fetal membrane, milk fever and metritis, and blood was analyzed for β-hydroxybutyrate at 6 and 9 DIM to diagnose ketosis. Plasma concentrations of cortisol, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor α and serum amyloid A at 3, 6, 9 and 12 DIM were included as additional indicators of illness. Cows were categorized as true sick if clinically diagnosed with an illness, or if at least 2 blood parameters were above the normal range. Diagnostic test performances for RT and IRT variables were determined for each variable at a test referent value that provided the highest Youden's (J) index. The best performing screening test depended on the definition of true sickness. In general, the J index for RT was 0.15–0.17 whereas the highest J index for the IRT variables was 0.22 for the mean eye temperature and 0.19 for the mean cheek temperature. Infrared thermography was at least comparable to RT and some IRT variables performed better as a screening tests than RT. Future studies into the automation of IRT for surveillance of early postpartum diseases is warranted.

Abstract 4072: A combinational therapy of oncolytic virus and nature killer cells for melanoma treatment

Abstract Immunotherapy has obtained substantial impact on the clinical treatment of melanoma which is largely resistant to current therapies as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Oncolytic virotherapy of melanoma is an appealing approach for inducing not only tumor cell death but also antitumor immunity. Furthermore, NK cells, a lineage of innate lymphocytes, not relying on peptides presented in an HLA class I context, have gained more and more attention as anti-melanoma effector cells. However, the combination of oncolytic adenovirus and NK cells has not yet been explored in melanoma. In this study, the combinational efficacies of oncolytic virus H101 and NK cells was tested in vitro. The combination of H101 and NK cells resulted more efficient killing of tumor cells (HT29, A549 and HepG2) compared to the monotherapies, and displayed no significant cytolytic effect of normal cells (HUVEC and MRC-5). In addition, we present a patient with right maxillary sinus malignant melanoma who was treated with the combination of H101 and adoptive NK cells. We observed intratumoral injections of H101 without dose-limiting toxicity. H101 injections stimulated self-immunity response with transient whole body fever. Furthermore, NK injections caused tumor temperature rise although contralateral cheek temperature was normal and body temperature was normal. Data are consistent with the hypothesis that virus-infected cancer cells attracted NK accumulation within tumor. The homing NK cells attacked targeted cancer cells, causing local temperature rise. Two courses of combination therapy in conjunction mediated the significant durable regression of melanoma, which had been ongoing for &amp;gt;22 months, and it represents a new immunotherapy approach for the treatment of these patients. Citation Format: Lin Chen, Xianju Chen, Xiankui Tan, Meng Li, Fang Hu, Haiyan Zhang, Xiaoyuan Wang. A combinational therapy of oncolytic virus and nature killer cells for melanoma treatment [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2019; 2019 Mar 29-Apr 3; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 4072.

Thermal signatures of voluntary deception in ecological conditions.

Deception is a pervasive phenomenon that greatly influences dyadic, groupal and societal interactions. Behavioural, physiological and neural signatures of this phenomenon have imporant implications for theoretical and applied research, but, because it is difficult for a laboratory to replicate the natural context in which deception occurs, contemporary research is still struggling to find such signatures. In this study, we tracked the facial temperature of participants who decided whether or not to deceive another person, in situations where their reputation was at risk or not. We used a high-sensitivity infrared device to track temperature changes to check for unique patterns of autonomic reactivity. Using a region-of-interest based approach we found that prior to any response there was a minimal increase in periorbital temperature (which indexes sympathetic activation, together with reduced cheek temperature) for the self-gain lies in the reputation-risk condition. Crucially, we found a rise in nose temperature (which indexes parasympathetic activation) for self-gain lies in the reputation-risk condition, not only during response preparation but also after the choice was made. This finding suggests that the entire deception process may be tracked by the nose region. Furthermore, this nasal temperature modulation was negatively correlated with machiavellian traits, indicating that sympathetic/parasympathetic regulation is less important for manipulative individuals who may care less about the consequences of lie-related moral violations. Our results highlight a unique pattern of autonomic reactivity for spontaneous deception in ecological contexts.

Blushing in early childhood: Feeling coy or socially anxious?

Blushing has adaptive social functions. However, blushing is also assumed to be a hallmark of social anxiety and shyness. For the first time, blushing and its relation to the expressions of shyness and social anxiety was examined in early childhood. Four-and-a-half-year-old children (N = 102) were asked to perform (singing in front of an audience) and watched back their performance in the presence of that audience. Physiological blushing (blood volume pulse, blood volume, and cheek temperature) was measured, and positive (gaze and/or head aversion with smiling) and negative expressions of shyness (gaze and/or head aversion with negative facial expressions) were observed. In addition, both parents reported their child's social anxiety level. A higher level of blushing response was related to greater social anxiety in children who displayed few positive shy expressions, but not in children who displayed many positive shy expressions during the performance. Moreover, children who expressed many negative shy expressions were highly socially anxious, no matter their blushing. Our findings suggest that blushing appears to be an early indicator of social anxiety in children who are not able to successfully cope with fearful social situations. In contrast, blushing, in combination with positive shy behaviors, appears to be an adaptive social mechanism that may protect from heightened social anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record

Diabetes and alcohol

Diabetes and alcohol

Relationships between facial temperature changes, end-exercise affect and during-exercise changes in affect: A preliminary study

The present study was performed as an evaluation of the relationships between changes in facial temperature and self-reported pleasure–displeasure during an acute aerobic exercise bout. Ninety-two students performed a 10-minute long session of cycle ergometry at 80–85% of age-predicted maximal heart rate. Using infrared thermography and a single-item measure of pleasure–displeasure (the Feeling Scale, FS), facial temperature and the FS score were sampled at the beginning (Min1:00) and at the end of the exercise session (Min9:00). Statistical analyses revealed that cheek (but not forehead) temperature was higher at the end of the exercise bout compared to Min1:00 (it increased by about 5%). Change in cheek temperature was negatively related to end-exercise affect (β = −0.28, P < 0.001) and to during-exercise affective changes (β = −0.35, P < 0.001). No significant relationship with forehead temperature was found. Some of the possible reasons for this differential effect as well as theoretical and practical implications of our findings are discussed.

Detection of Amusement Feeling by Using Skin Temperature on Cheeks

This letter shows the relationship between amusement feeling expression and skin temperature of cheeks. We measured skin temperature of cheeks and nose using thermography in 30 fps when subjects rest and watching TV-comedy program as emotion-eliciting stimuli. The results for five persons show that the cheek temperature rises immediately when amusement feeling is expressed in most cases.

The effect of stress on core and peripheral body temperature in humans

Even though there are indications that stress influences body temperature in humans, no study has systematically investigated the effects of stress on core and peripheral body temperature. The present study therefore aimed to investigate the effects of acute psychosocial stress on body temperature using different readout measurements. In two independent studies, male and female participants were exposed to a standardized laboratory stress task (the Trier Social Stress Test, TSST) or a non-stressful control task. Core temperature (intestinal and temporal artery) and peripheral temperature (facial and body skin temperature) were measured. Compared to the control condition, stress exposure decreased intestinal temperature but did not affect temporal artery temperature. Stress exposure resulted in changes in skin temperature that followed a gradient-like pattern, with decreases at distal skin locations such as the fingertip and finger base and unchanged skin temperature at proximal regions such as the infra-clavicular area. Stress-induced effects on facial temperature displayed a sex-specific pattern, with decreased nasal skin temperature in females and increased cheek temperature in males. In conclusion, the amplitude and direction of stress-induced temperature changes depend on the site of temperature measurement in humans. This precludes a direct translation of the preclinical stress-induced hyperthermia paradigm, in which core temperature uniformly rises in response to stress to the human situation. Nevertheless, the effects of stress result in consistent temperature changes. Therefore, the present study supports the inclusion of body temperature as a physiological readout parameter of stress in future studies.

A novel animal model to study hot flashes

Menopausal hot flashes compromise the quality of life for most women. The physiological mechanisms underlying hot flashes remain poorly understood, and the absence of an animal model to investigate hot flashes hinders investigations in this field. We first developed the sheep as a model to study peripheral skin temperature changes using fever-inducing lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 200 microg/kg) administered to ovary-intact ewes. Because a strong correlation between luteinizing hormone pulses and hot flashes has previously been reported, we then determined whether intravenous gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH; 1 mg), a dose sufficient to elevate cerebrospinal fluid-GnRH concentrations, could modulate ear skin temperature in both ovariectomized and low-estrogen-replaced ovariectomized ewes. Some ewes responded to LPS in heart rate and abdominal temperature, but there was no significant effect on either parameter or cheek temperature for the group. In contrast, LPS injection caused a significant (P < 0.001) change in skin temperature at the ear. Ear temperature showed no significant change in response to GnRH relative to control injections in both ovariectomized and low estrogen ewes. We developed a model animal system in the ewe that can accurately detect small changes in peripheral skin temperature. This system has the potential to be extremely useful in future studies investigating the pathology of hot flashes and holds several advantages over previous model systems developed for this research. GnRH per se does not seem to be involved in thermoregulatory events.