Probability Of Cheating Research Articles

Quantum Rabin oblivious transfer using two pure states

Oblivious transfer between two untrusting parties is an important primitive in cryptography. There are different variants of oblivious transfer. In Rabin oblivious transfer, the sender Alice holds a bit, and the receiver Bob either obtains the bit, or obtains no information with probability p?. Alice should not know whether or not Bob obtained the bit. We examine a quantum Rabin oblivious transfer (OT) protocol that uses two pure states. Investigating different cheating scenarios for the sender and for the receiver, we determine optimal cheating probabilities in each case. Comparing the quantum Rabin oblivious transfer protocol to classical Rabin oblivious transfer protocols, we show that the quantum protocol outperforms classical protocols, which do not use a third party, for some values of p?. We find that quantum Rabin OT protocols that use mixed states can outperform quantum Rabin OT protocols that use pure states for some values of p?. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Online Exam Cheating Detection Method for Programming Courses

Online exam cheating has always been a problem that the field of education and teaching and the teaching department focus on and research. In order to effectively detect cheating or calculate the probability of cheating, this paper proposes an algorithm for calculating the probability of cheating in the exam based on the rules and codes similarity. According to the current situation of programming courses and the actual situation of the exam, it can be judged whether there is cheating. The implementation of the cheating detection algorithm can curb the plagiarism phenomenon of online exams and purify the discipline of the test style.

Conspiracy theories explained by a cheating detection mechanism

AbstractResearch on conspiracy theories sometimes tends to pathologise this phenomenon with a focus on the impact of (sub)pathological predictors. However, socio‐political factors also play a significant role in predicting belief in specific conspiracy theories. The aim of this article is to bridge these two perspectives through a unified cognitive mechanism. Based on an overlap between cheating and conspiracy concepts, we assume a cheating detection mechanism likely to underlie belief in conspiracy theories. Starting from the adaptive challenges of cheating detection, we explore the workings of this mechanism using signal detection theory and error management theory. The probability of cheating and decision bias according to the asymmetry of error costs in cheating detection could lead individuals to infer conspiracy theories. This functional mechanism not only explains the links between socio‐political predictors and adherence to conspiracy theories but also helps us deduce alterations that may foster a stable inclination towards believing in conspiracy theories. These alterations, in turn, offer an explanation for the links between (sub)pathological predictors and conspiracy mentality. By integrating existing literature, our proposed model sheds light on the mechanisms underlying belief in conspiracy theories and presents new predictions to guide future research.

Noninteractive xor Quantum Oblivious Transfer: Optimal Protocols and Their Experimental Implementations

Oblivious transfer (OT) is an important cryptographic primitive. Any multi-party computation can be realised with OT as building block. XOR oblivious transfer (XOT) is a variant where the sender Alice has two bits, and a receiver Bob obtains either the first bit, the second bit, or their XOR. Bob should not learn anything more than this, and Alice should not learn what Bob has learnt. Perfect quantum OT with information-theoretic security is known to be impossible. We determine the smallest possible cheating probabilities for unrestricted dishonest parties in non-interactive quantum XOT protocols using symmetric pure states, and present an optimal protocol, which outperforms classical protocols. We also "reverse" this protocol, so that Bob becomes sender of a quantum state and Alice the receiver who measures it, while still implementing oblivious transfer from Alice to Bob. Cheating probabilities for both parties stay the same as for the unreversed protocol. We optically implemented both the unreversed and the reversed protocols, and cheating strategies, noting that the reversed protocol is easier to implement.

A straightforward graphical/statistical approach to help substantiate cheating on multiple-choice examinations.

Academic dishonesty is prevalent in universities in the form of cheating on examinations, with the problem being much greater in classes that have a large number of students that require close seating arrangements for in-class exams. The scenario described below was experienced during an in-class exam that included the possibility of an Honor Code violation between two students that was observed independently by three different faculty proctors. Herein we detail an objective, statistical approach taken to maintain exam and academic integrity that is compelling and transparent to students and the University Honor Council. Using the established error-similarity analysis for multiple-choice exams, it was determined that the number of identical incorrect answers found on the exams of the two individuals in question was sufficiently greater than the number expected by chance (probability of P < 0.00001). The number of total identical incorrect answers found on the remaining exams (across 65 students, n = 89 comparisons) was plotted as function of the number of total incorrect answers found on these exams (incorrect answers ranged from 1 to 22) and clearly supported that there was an Honor Code violation between the two students in question. The techniques used herein established, beyond a reasonable doubt, that a form of cheating had occurred between these students. However, caution must be taken as further investigation is requisite to establish whether the Honor Code violation was unidirectional (one student copying off the other) or bidirectional (collusion between the two students) in nature.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Academic dishonesty is prevalent in universities, especially on examinations with a large number of students in close seating arrangements. Cheating on a multiple-choice exam was suspected by observations from proctors of the examination. Application of error-similarity analysis associated with identical incorrect answers demonstrated that the probability of cheating was confirmed (P < 0.00001) between two examinees. Further comparisons with the remaining exams provided graphic evidence that a violation of the University's Honor Code had occurred.

Imperfect 1-Out-of-2 Quantum Oblivious Transfer: Bounds, a Protocol, and its Experimental Implementation

Oblivious transfer is an important primitive in modern cryptography. Applications include secure multiparty computation, oblivious sampling, e-voting, and signatures. Information-theoretically secure perfect 1-out-of 2 oblivious transfer is impossible to achieve. Imperfect variants, where both participants' ability to cheat is still limited, are possible using quantum means while remaining classically impossible. Precisely what security parameters are attainable remains unknown. We introduce a theoretical framework for studying semirandom quantum oblivious transfer, which is shown to be equivalent to regular oblivious transfer in terms of cheating probabilities. We then use it to derive bounds on cheating. We also present a protocol with lower cheating probabilities than previous schemes, together with its optical realization. We show that a lower bound of 2/3 on the minimum achievable cheating probability can be directly derived for semirandom protocols using a different method and definition of cheating than used previously. The lower bound increases from 2/3 to approximately 0.749 if the states output by the protocol are pure and symmetric. The oblivious transfer scheme we present uses unambiguous state elimination measurements and can be implemented with the same technological requirements as standard quantum cryptography. The cheating probabilities are 3/4 and approximately 0.729 for sender and receiver respectively, which is lower than in existing protocols. Using a photonic test-bed, we have implemented the protocol with honest parties, as well as optimal cheating strategies.

Verifiable Secret Sharing Scheme Based on the Plane Parametric Curve

Verifiable secret sharing is a special kind of secret sharing. In this paper, A secure and efficient threshold secret sharing scheme is proposed by using the plane parametric curve on the basis of the principle of secret sharing. And the performance of this threshold scheme is analyzed. The results reveal that the threshold scheme has its own advantage of one-parameter representation for a master key, and it is a perfect ideal secret sharing scheme. It can easily detect cheaters by single operation in the participants so that the probability of valid cheating is less than 1/p (where p is a large prime).

Effects of Self-Control on Cheating Among Indonesian College Students

Cheating among college students has long been a concern in the academic field. In addressing this problem, it is imperative to determine in what circumstances college students cheat. Looking into the internal factor, previous research found that the depletion of self-control increased the probability of cheating. To determine whether this result could be replicated in an Indonesian population, we conducted an experimental study. A sample of 63 undergraduates was randomized into two groups, a self-control depletion group (had difficult essay-writing task) and a self-control no-depletion group (had an easy essay-writing task). After writing the essay, the participants were then asked to complete a knowledge task directly on the test sheet and then copy their answers into a pre-marked sheet. Cheating was determined as modified answers from the test sheet to the pre-marked sheet. The results showed a significant difference in modified answers between the depleted and non-depleted self-control group (t = 2.09, p &lt; 0.05). This finding indicates that depletion of self-control affects cheating. This study has a meaningful implication for determining the ideal setting in which the university should conduct their examinations.

The divergent effects of prayer on cheating

ABSTRACT Some research suggests that reminders of religious beliefs and concepts can decrease immoral behavior, such as cheating, via fear of supernatural punishment among other mechanisms. However, one of the most common natural religious primes, petitionary prayer, could in theory have the opposite effect, as it implies and asserts external attributions for behavior. We tested whether petitionary prayer, despite its association with religiosity, might nevertheless increase cheating and whether such effects would differ as a function of participants’ religious beliefs. American participants (N = 251) completed an online “Swahili translation” task that afforded cheating; half were asked to compose a prayer to improve their performance. Results showed that religiosity (measured as supernatural beliefs) was associated with a greater probability of cheating, as well as more extensive cheating among those that did cheat; prayer decreased the likelihood of cheating (but not its extent) among religious people only. Mediational analyses suggested that, counterintuitively, it was believers’ beliefs about God’s control, rather than about God’s capacity for punishment, that explained the effects.

Cheating in a contest with strategic inspection

We analyze a game between three players: two Athletes and an Inspector. Two athletes compete with each other and both may cheat to increase their chances of victory. The Inspector wishes to detect incidents of cheating, and performs tests on athletes to detect cheating. The test is costly for the Inspector. Both probability of cheating and that of testing decrease as cost of inspection diminishes.

Simple proof of the impossibility of bit commitment in generalized probabilistic theories using cone programming

Bit-commitment is a fundamental cryptographic task, in which Alice commits a bit to Bob such that she cannot later change the value of the bit, while, simultaneously, the bit is hidden from Bob. It is known that ideal bit-commitment is impossible within quantum theory. In this work, we show that it is also impossible in generalised probabilistic theories (under a small set of assumptions) by presenting a quantitative trade-off between Alice's and Bob's cheating probabilities. Our proof relies crucially on a formulation of cheating strategies as cone programs, a natural generalisation of semidefinite programs. In fact, using the generality of this technique, we prove that this result holds for the more general task of integer-commitment.

Physical Limitations of Quantum Cryptographic Primitives or Optimal Bounds for Quantum Coin Flipping and Bit Commitment

Coin flipping and bit commitment are two fundamental cryptographic primitives with numerous applications. Quantum information allows for such protocols in the information theoretic setting where no dishonest party can perfectly cheat. The previously best-known quantum coin flipping and bit commitment protocol by Ambainis achieved a cheating probability of at most 3/4 [A. Ambainis, Proceedings of the $30$th Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, Washington, DC, IEEE Computer Society, 2001]. On the other hand, Kitaev showed that no quantum coin flipping or bit commitment protocol can have cheating probability less than $1/\sqrt{2}$ [A. Kitaev, Presentation at the $6$th Workshop on Quantum Information Processing (QIP), 2003]. Closing these gaps has been one of the important open questions in quantum cryptography. In this paper, we resolve both questions. First, we present a quantum strong coin flipping protocol with cheating probability arbitrarily close to $1/\sqrt{2}$. More precisely, we show how to ...

Practical quantum retrieval games

Complex cryptographic protocols are often constructed from simpler building-blocks. In order to advance quantum cryptography, it is important to study practical building-blocks that can be used to develop new protocols. An example is quantum retrieval games (QRGs), which have broad applicability and have already been used to construct quantum money schemes. In this work, we introduce a general construction of quantum retrieval games based on the hidden matching problem and show how they can be implemented in practice using available technology. More precisely, we provide a general method to construct (1-out-of-k) QRGs, proving that their cheating probabilities decrease exponentially in $k$. In particular, we define new QRGs based on coherent states of light, which can be implemented even in the presence of experimental imperfections. Our results constitute a new tool in the arsenal of the practical quantum cryptographer.

Management Buy-out Pricing Model: A Fairness Preference Perspective

In order to determine the effective and reasonable management buyout price, considered of asymmetric infor- mation, this paper investigated the shareholders' decision-making behavior during the management buyout pricing proc- ess under a fairness preferences perspective. The conclusions in this paper were�1) The greater the value of the option, the smaller the critical probability of management buy-out success, namely smaller posteriori probability of the original shareholders to the management; and 2) MBO share is affected by inequity aversion. In order to enhance utility, manage- ment with higher degree of inequity aversion would increase the probability of cheating and moral hazard. The contribu- tions of this paper were: the signal display principle of option value has been found; and studied the fairness preference during the process, psychological disutility produced by fairness preference has a crowding-out effect on managerial own- ership's incentive contracts.

Fast Cut-and-Choose-Based Protocols for Malicious and Covert Adversaries

In the setting of secure two-party computation, two parties wish to securely compute a joint function of their private inputs, while revealing only the output. One of the primary techniques for achieving efficient secure two-party computation is that of Yao's garbled circuits (FOCS 1986). In the semi-honest model, where just one garbled circuit is constructed and evaluated, Yao's protocol has proven itself to be very efficient. However, a malicious adversary who constructs the garbled circuit may construct a garbling of a different circuit computing a different function, and this cannot be detected (due to the garbling). In order to solve this problem, many circuits are sent and some of them are opened to check that they are correct while the others are evaluated. This methodology, called cut-and-choose, introduces significant overhead, both in computation and in communication, and is mainly due to the number of circuits that must be used in order to prevent cheating. In this paper, we present a cut-and-choose protocol for secure computation based on garbled circuits, with security in the presence of malicious adversaries, that vastly improves on all previous protocols of this type. Concretely, for a cheating probability of at most $$2^{-40}$$2-40, the best previous works send between 125 and 128 circuits. In contrast, in our protocol 40 circuits alone suffice (with some additional overhead). Asymptotically, we achieve a cheating probability of $$2^{-s}$$2-s where $$s$$s is the number of garbled circuits, in contrast to the previous best of $$2^{-0.32s}$$2-0.32s. We achieve this by introducing a new cut-and-choose methodology with the property that in order to cheat, all of the evaluated circuits must be incorrect, and not just the majority as in previous works. The security of our protocol relies on the decisional Diffie---Hellman assumption.

Secure and practical constant round mental poker

We present a new mental poker protocol, which achieves negligible probability of cheating in constant round. All of previous secure mental poker protocol use L-round zero-knowledge protocols to ensure the probability of successful active cheating to be O(2-L).Our protocol uses a different way to verify the integrity of the shuffle. The cryptosystem and the basic structure of our protocol is based on Castellà-Roca’s mental protocol, which is very efficient and secure. The L-round zero-knowledge shuffle verification is replaced by a checksum-like framework. There are two kinds of checksums used in our shuffle: linear checksum and double exponentiation. The “linear checksum” is used to make sure that every card in the deck is distinct. The “double exponentiation checksum” is used to make sure that every card has a legitimate face value.The security can be proved under DDH assumption. The probability of successful cheating is negligible, even if the adversary can actively corrupt the majority of players. It is also very fast. For a 9 player game, the computation cost of our shuffle is comparable to the L-round verification with L=4. The time complexity of our shuffle is Θ(MN+N2)E (compares to Θ(MN2L)E for a L-round shuffle), where N is the number of players, M is the number of cards, and E is the computation cost of one modular exponentiation.The communication cost is also reduced. Compares to the L-round protocol we based on, number of messages is reduced from Θ(N3L) to Θ(N2), and the total length of messages is reduced from Θ(N2L(M+N))η to Θ(MN2)η, where η is the length of an encryption key. For a 9-player game, our shuffle requires only 53% messages, and total length of messages is only 7%(compares to the case L=30 and all L rounds of shuffle verification are allowed to run in parallel).It is the first constant round mental poker protocol that is provably secure and efficient enough to satisfy the practical needs. The probability of successful cheating is negligible,

Efficient t ‐cheater identifiable ( k , n ) secret‐sharing scheme for t ≤ ⌊(( k − 2)/2)⌋

In Eurocrypt 2011, Obana proposed a (k, n) secret-sharing scheme that can identify up to ⌊((k − 2)/2)⌋ cheaters. The number of cheaters that this scheme can identify meets its upper bound. When the number of cheaters t satisfies t ≤ ⌊((k − 1)/3)⌋, this scheme is extremely efficient since the size of share |𝒱 i | can be written as |𝒱 i | = |𝒮|/ɛ, which almost meets its lower bound, where |𝒮| denotes the size of secret and e denotes the successful cheating probability; when the number of cheaters t is close to ⌊((k − 2)/2)⌋, the size of share is upper bounded by |𝒱 i | = (n·(t + 1) · 23t − 1|𝒮|)/ɛ. A new (k, n) secret-sharing scheme capable of identifying ⌊((k − 2)/2)⌋ cheaters is presented in this study. Considering the general case that k shareholders are involved in secret reconstruction, the size of share of the proposed scheme is |𝒱 i | = (2 k − 1|𝒮| )/ɛ, which is independent of the parameters t and n. On the other hand, the size of share in Obana's scheme can be rewritten as |𝒱 i | = (n · (t + 1) · 2 k − 1|𝒮|)/ɛ under the same condition. With respect to the size of share, the proposed scheme is more efficient than previous one when the number of cheaters t is close to ⌊((k − 2)/2)⌋.

Lower bounds for quantum oblivious transfer

Oblivious transfer is a fundamental primitive in cryptography. While perfect information theoretic security is impossible, quantum oblivious transfer protocols can limit the dishonest player's cheating. Finding the optimal security parameters in such protocols is an important open question. In this paper we show that every 1-out-of-2 oblivious transfer protocol allows a dishonest party to cheat with probability bounded below by a constant strictly larger than $1/2$. Alice's cheating is defined as her probability of guessing Bob's index, and Bob's cheating is defined as his probability of guessing both input bits of Alice. In our proof, we relate these cheating probabilities to the cheating probabilities of a bit commitment protocol and conclude by using lower bounds on quantum bit commitment. Then, we present an oblivious transfer protocol with two messages and cheating probabilities at most $3/4$. Last, we extend Kitaev's semidefinite programming formulation to more general primitives, where the security is against a dishonest player trying to force the outcome of the other player, and prove optimal lower and upper bounds for them.

Using the Scenario Method to Analyze Cheating Behaviors

Using student self-reported cheating admissions and answers from a hypothetical cheating scenario, this paper analyzes the effects of individual and situational factors on potential cheating behavior. Results confirm several conclusions about student factors that are related to cheating. The probability of cheating is associated with younger students, lower GPAs, alcohol consumption, fraternity/sorority membership, and having cheated in high school. Student perceptions of the certainty and severity of punishment appear to have a negative and significant impact on the probability of cheating on in-class assignments. Students who report a belief that cheating is never acceptable appear to be significantly less likely to cheat in any circumstance. This study illustrates the context-dependent nature of academic dishonesty, and the associated difficulty in understanding the relationships between measurable factors and cheating behavior.

Practical quantum coin flipping

In this article we show for the first time that quantum coin flipping with security guarantees that are strictly better than any classical protocol is possible to implement with current technology. Our protocol takes into account all aspects of an experimental implementation like losses, multi-photon pulses emitted by practical photon sources, channel noise, detector dark counts and finite quantum efficiency. We calculate the abort probability when both players are honest, as well as the probability of one player forcing his desired outcome. For channel length up to 21 km, we achieve a cheating probability that is better than in any classical protocol. Our protocol is easy to implement using attenuated laser pulses, with no need for entangled photons or any other specific resources.