Charred Remains Research Articles

New radiocarbon dates point to the early evolution of resilient agriculture among Central Europe’s first farmers

AbstractThe shift towards cultivating domesticated crops was a pivotal development in ecological, economic, and human behavioural systems. As agriculture expanded beyond its origins, it faced diverse environments, often unsuitable for the originally cultivated domesticates. Farmers in Central Europe had to adjust and transform their farming systems, typically cultivating only five domesticated crop species. Here, we present new archaeobotanical data comprising 7955 determined charred remains and 22 radiocarbon dates from South Bohemia. This region, with higher altitudes, colder climates, and less fertile soils, lies on the periphery of Early Neolithic settlement. Our results reveal increased crop diversity as a form of adaptation to the harsher environment that bolstered resilience against crop failure. The earliest 14C-based evidence of deliberate cultivation of barley and Timopheev’s wheat in the region also provides new insights into the interplay between crop diffusion, landscapes, and food choices in the Neolithic Central Europe.

Топливо для кремаций середины I тыс. н. э. Среднего Поволжья

The paper presents results of charcoal and macrofossil analysis of the cremation burial grounds of the Imenkovo culture that occupied the Middle Volga region in 400—650 CE. We analyzed assemblages from four necropolises: Bogorodski, Maklasheevka 4, Komarovka and a burial ground from Zhigulevsk 2 site. Charred remains were recorded at the bottom of burials, among cremated bones or in the in-fill of graves and mortuary vessels. The assemblages contained charcoal, caryopses and stems of millet and cereals, seeds and stems of grasses and weeds, and shoots of thorny shrubs. The size of the charcoal pieces did not exceed 3 cm, being much smaller in most burials. The species composition of charcoal from cremations indicates that all locally-available woody taxa were used for the funeral pyre, instead of choosing certain types of trees for ritual purposes. Thus, the composition of the cremation fuel reflected the vegetation composition of the encasing landscape. Dominant charred taxa in the Imenkovo cremations were Tilia and Betula (linden and birch), the typical components of the “slash-and-burn landscape” of the Middle Volga region during this period. Despite the fact that all the burial grounds were located at the higher grounds in the landscape, the presence of riverine taxa — Alnus, Salix, and Ulmus (willow, alder and elm) and abundance of charred herbaceous remains in the charcoal spectra points at floodplains or mouths of gullies as a probable location of cremation platforms. An important detail of the funeral rite, revealed by the research, is placing unhulled millet, soaked and germinated before cremation, into the funeral pyre.

Second GHEP-ISFG exercise for DVI: “DNA-led” victims’ identification in a simulated air crash

The Spanish and Portuguese-Speaking Working Group of the International Society for Forensic Genetics (GHEP-ISFG) has organized a second collaborative exercise on a simulated case of Disaster Victim Identification (DVI), with the participation of eighteen laboratories. The exercise focused on the analysis of a simulated plane crash case of medium-size resulting in 66 victims with varying degrees of fragmentation of the bodies (with commingled remains). As an additional difficulty, this second exercise included 21 related victims belonging to 6 families among the 66 missings to be identified. A total number of 228 post-mortem samples were represented with aSTR and mtDNA profiles, with a proportion of partial aSTR profiles simulating charred remains. To perform the exercise, participants were provided with aSTR and mtDNA data of 51 reference pedigrees —some of which deficient—including 128 donors for identification purposes. The exercise consisted firstly in the comparison of the post-mortem genetic profiles in order to re-associate fragmented remains to the same individual and secondly in the identification of the re-associated remains by comparing aSTR and mtDNA profiles with reference pedigrees using pre-established thresholds to report a positive identification. Regarding the results of the post-mortem samples re-associations, only a small number of discrepancies among participants were detected, all of which were from just a few labs. However, in the identification process by kinship analysis with family references, there were more discrepancies in comparison to the correct results. The identification results of single victims yielded fewer problems than the identification of multiple related victims within the same family groups. Several reasons for the discrepant results were detected: a) the identity/non-identity hypotheses were sometimes wrongly expressed in the likelihood ratio calculations, b) some laboratories failed to use all family references to report the DNA match, c) In families with several related victims, some laboratories firstly identified some victims and then unnecessarily used their genetic information to identify the remaining victims within the family, d) some laboratories did not correctly use “prior odds” values for the Bayesian treatment of the episode for both post-mortem/post-mortem re-associations as well as the ante-mortem/post-mortem comparisons to evaluate the probability of identity. For some of the above reasons, certain laboratories failed to identify some victims. This simulated “DNA-led” identification exercise may help forensic genetic laboratories to gain experience and expertize for DVI or MPI in using genetic data and comparing their own results with the ones in this collaborative exercise.

Xylophagous insects of the wooden floor of Camelin block (Fréjus, France): An interdisciplinary approach combining archaeology and anthraco-entomology

Preventive excavation in the ancient Forum Iulii city (Fréjus, southern France) in 2013 revealed a housing block where a very well preserved charred wooden floor was discovered. It was laid in a house dating back to the first half of the 1st century AD and used as the floor of a room decorated with painted plaster. It was destroyed by fire around 70 AD. The ligneous species used for its construction (Aleppo pine, Scots pine, beech and fir) were characterized by anthracological analysis. Numerous traces of xylophagous insects and lignivorous fungi were observed. Their identification, their number and their distribution in the floor open on to very interesting new interpretations for both anthracologists and archaeologists as regards the condition of timber, the original source of the infestation, and the historical record of the building. This study is a direct and unprecedented application of a key for identifying traces of wood-boring insects in charred remains from the Roman period. Field samples were tested during the excavation of Camelin block, and microscope observation protocols were adapted to entomo-archaeology during anthraco-analysis.

Radiocarbon dating and microarchaeology untangle the history of Jerusalem's Temple Mount: A view from Wilson's Arch.

Radiocarbon dating is rarely applied in Classical and Post-Classical periods in the Eastern Mediterranean, as it is not considered precise enough to solve specific chronological questions, often causing the attribution of historic monuments to be based on circumstantial evidence. This research, applied in Jerusalem, presents a novel approach to solve this problem. Integrating fieldwork, stratigraphy, and microarchaeology analyses with intense radiocarbon dating of charred remains in building materials beneath Wilson's Arch, we absolutely dated monumental structures to very narrow windows of time–even to specific rulers. Wilson’s Arch was initiated by Herod the Great and enlarged during the Roman Procurators, such as Pontius Pilatus, in a range of 70 years, rather than 700 years, as previously discussed by scholars. The theater-like structure is dated to the days of Emperor Hadrian and left unfinished before 132–136 AD. Through this approach, it is possible to solve archaeological riddles in intensely urban environments in the historical periods.

Effects of stepped-combustion on fresh pollen grains: Morphoscopic, thermogravimetric, and chemical proxies for the interpretation of archeological charred assemblages

Macroscopic charred remains have long since been studied in archeology, archaeobotany, and palaeoenvironmental research. Despite this long tradition, very little attention has so far been given to microscopic charred botanical remains, apart from microcharcoal. The discovery of extraordinarily well-preserved fossil bee-breads and fragments of charred honeycombs in an Etruscan settlement in northern Italy prompted us to perform a combustion experiment on fresh bee-breads, aimed to study the main morphological, structural and chemical modifications induced by heat on pollen grains and whole bee-breads. The experiment enabled the observation and quantification of changes in overall shape and size, brightness, tectum structure and sculptures of pollen grains, as well as changes in the chemical composition of whole bee-breads. Data obtained on fresh material were then applied to archeological samples from the Etruscan Forcello settlement for inferences on the combustion temperatures reached during the fire that destroyed the site.

Ethnoarchaeological Study of Noog (Guizotia abyssinica (L. f.) Cass., Compositae) in Ethiopia

ABSTRACTEthnoarchaeological research was conducted on traditional agriculture and use of noog (Guizotia abyssinica (L.) Cass.) as well as its wild progenitor, mech (Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov) in present day Ethiopia. The study revealed technological and social aspects of this oil crop. Various traditional processing methods (field and household), division of labor, and economical and cultural values are outlined and described. The study shows the probability of charred remains occurring as a result of field processing noog and household processing of noog and mech. It is, however, difficult to differentiate, based on residue composition, the various field processing activities because of similarity of components and absence of weed seeds associated with the noog crop. The tools used in the processing do not leave evidence in the archaeological record indicative of the presence of noog and mech.

Utilisation of cultivated and wild plants in the economy of the Linear Pottery Culture in the Upper Vistula basin

The current recognition of plant materials obtained from archaeological sites of the Linear Pottery Culture in the Upper Vistula basin made it possible to indicate the species that were cultivated and utilised by the Early Neolithic human communities. The data presented in this paper, referring to the occurrence of macroscopic plant remains of various types, was collected from 23 sites (97 identifi ed taxa). The analyses covered charred remains of plants, their imprints in daub and pottery, and fragments preserved within the mass of clay used for production of ceramic vessels. The results of these studies have delivered a great number of interpretative opportunities; apart from reconstructions of the environment and economic behaviours of fi rst farmers, these opportunities included the versatile application of plants, and clearly indicated that an application of plants and organic materials was highly diversifi ed and constituted the grounds on which human economy of the Early Neolithic was based.

Back from burn out: are experimentally charred grapevine pips too distorted to be characterized using morphometrics?

This article examines the impact of charring on the possibility to characterize grape pips, at compartment (wild versus domesticated) and cultivar level, using morphometrics. Two morphometric methods have been used, one based on linear measurements (traditional morphometrics) and one on elliptic Fourier transforms (EFT; morphogeometrics). Charring experiments were performed using a laboratory muffle furnace and various charring conditions. Despite the strong impact of heating, results showed that wild and domesticated Vitis seeds can be reliably discriminated using both traditional morphometrics and morphogeometrics, even when charring has been done at high temperature (450 °C). The characterization of charred pips at cultivar level using EFT is very powerful when the seeds are charred at 250 °C, but the risk of misclassification is, as expected, higher at 450 °C. Results suggest that the characterization at cultivar level should only be attempted with large assemblages of well preserved archaeological pips, and only after a first classification at compartment level. Our approach was applied on a case study of two assemblages of waterlogged and well preserved charred pips from the archaeological site of Lattara. The results are consistent both between the two morphometric methods and between waterlogged and charred remains.

The first archaeobotanical evidence of Spinacia oleracea L. (spinach) in late 12th–mid 13th century a.d. France

Macroscopic charred remains of Spinacia oleracea L. (Amaranthaceae) have been found in the Pyrenean village of Montaillou, France, in several contexts of a house dated to the end 12th–mid 13th century a.d. This is the first archaeobotanical record of this vegetable in France and the earliest European archaeobotanical material so far found. The paper presents the morphological criteria used for identifying the charred remains of the species. After a review of archaeobotanical finds in Europe, hypotheses on the economic status of this vegetable, which is unknown as a wild plant in Europe, are discussed with reference to medieval written and illuminated sources and to archaeological deposits. It appears that Spinacia was first introduced into France from Moorish Spain where it was cultivated at least since the 11th century. The French evidence of Spinacia thus represents a milestone in the history and geographic diffusion of this vegetable into temperate Europe.

Studying ancient crop provenance: implications from δ13C and δ15N values of charred barley in a Middle Bronze Age silo at Ebla(NW Syria)

The discovery of a storeroom full of barley and other cereals (L.9512) in the proto-historic site of Ebla has provided a unique opportunity to study the centralized storage system of the early city-state from a different perspective. Epigraphic evidence available within the site reveals a complex system of taxation which included gathering grain tributes from satellite sites and redistributing semi-finished products such as flour. In this paper, we intend to explore the possibilities of a combined approach to studying the storage system, based on estimated barley grain volumes and δ(13)C-δ(15)N analyses. This approach is used to distinguish between grain from different harvesting sites and to identify any grain cultivated using special agricultural practices (e.g. manuring or irrigation). The basic assumption for this kind of analysis is that the growth-site conditions, natural or anthropogenic, of harvested cereals are reflected in their grain size and δ(13)C-δ(15)N values. Since the remains found in the storeroom were charred, the first task was to evaluate the effect of carbonization on the δ(13)C-δ(15)N and the size of the grains. Thus, the effect of charring was tested on modern samples of Syrian barley landraces. Once it had been ascertained that fresh grains reduced to charred remains retain their original biometric and isotopic traits, the ancient material was examined. Thirteen groups were identified, each characterized by a specific average volume and specific carbon and nitrogen values. The analysis revealed that what had first appeared to be a homogeneous concentration of grain was in fact an assemblage of barley harvested from different sites.

An investigation of processing and consumption of pulses among prehistoric societies: archaeobotanical, experimental and ethnographic evidence from Greece

Pulses have constituted an important food source for prehistoric communities in the Old World, yet little is known as regards their processing for consumption through the archaeobotanical record. This paper provides an overview of archaeobotanical evidence for the use of pulses in prehistoric Greece based on two case studies from the north, and explores (a) their preparation for consumption, in particular their detoxification and (b) the consumption of pulses as a component of ordinary daily meals in prehistoric times, as well as those for special occasions, within a context of feasting and ritual. The paper examines charred remains of Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch) and Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) from early Bronze Age Agios Athanasios and late Neolithic Kremasti Koiladas, respectively, as the former provides a basis for a pilot exploration of pulse detoxification and the latter, due to its origin, offers a rare opportunity to discuss the context of consumption. In the pilot exploration of pulse seed preparation for consumption, the inner cotyledon morphology of modern V. ervilia seeds which were experimentally processed with water and pounding was examined macroscopically and through SEM micrographs. Preliminary observations suggest that intentional splitting of pulse seeds as part of processing for consumption as food may be recognisable in the archaeobotanical record. Processing with water may also be detected. The particular context of the Kremasti finds suggests that pulses, in this particular case L. sativus, may have constituted special foods for particular occasions, loaded with symbolic meaning.

The effect of fire and permafrost interactions on soil carbon accumulation in an upland black spruce ecosystem of interior Alaska: implications for post-thaw carbon loss

High-latitude regions store large amounts of organic carbon (OC) in active-layer soils and permafrost, accounting for nearly half of the global belowground OC pool. In the boreal region, recent warming has promoted changes in the fire regime, which may exacerbate rates of permafrost thaw and alter soil OC dynamics in both organic and mineral soil. We examined how interactions between fire and permafrost govern rates of soil OC accumulation in organic horizons, mineral soil of the active layer, and near-surface permafrost in a black spruce ecosystem of interior Alaska. To estimate OC accumulation rates, we used chronosequence, radiocarbon, and modeling approaches. We also developed a simple model to track long-term changes in soil OC stocks over past fire cycles and to evaluate the response of OC stocks to future changes in the fire regime. Our chronosequence and radiocarbon data indicate that OC turnover varies with soil depth, with fastest turnover occurring in shallow organic horizons (� 60 years) and slowest turnover in nearsurface permafrost (43000 years). Modeling analysis indicates that OC accumulation in organic horizons was strongly governed by carbon losses via combustion and burial of charred remains in deep organic horizons. OC accumulation in mineral soil was influenced by active layer depth, which determined the proportion of mineral OC in a thawed or frozen state and thus, determined loss rates via decomposition. Our model results suggest that future changes in fire regime will result in substantial reductions in OC stocks, largely from the deep organic horizon. Additional OC losses will result from fire-induced thawing of near-surface permafrost. From these findings, we conclude that the vulnerability of deep OC stocks to future warming is closely linked to the sensitivity of permafrost to wildfire disturbance.

Sex identification and software development using digital femoral head radiographs

The determination of sex is considered one of the first essential steps in positive identification. The current study aspires to accomplish a threefold purpose: to develop an easy and rapid sex determination technique using digital radiographs from the proximal epiphysis of the femur, to develop a simplified tool for pathologists that will provide accurate sex identification using radiographs and to compare this method with standard osteometric techniques applied to the same population. A total of 70 (36 males and 34 females) left femora were measured according to standard osteometric techniques. The proximal epiphyses of the same sample were then radiographed using a digital X-ray machine (TCA 4R PLUS). The skeletal remains were selected from the exhumed skeletons of St. Konstantinos and Pateles Cemeteries, Heraklion, Crete. Nine classical measurements were taken from the entire dry femora. Stepwise discriminant function analysis selected only 2 dimensions (maximum head diameter and anterior–posterior midshaft diameter) producing an accuracy rate of 88.6% for both original and cross-validated data. If assuming that only the proximal part of the femur is present, direct procedure results in 87.1% correct group membership. Six landmarks were selected in the radiograph and 15 variables representing all possible combinations of these landmarks were calculated using a specially designed calibrated Java program. Measurements were submitted to discriminant function analysis using SPSS subroutines. Stepwise discriminant function analysis selected only 3 out of 15 dimensions, producing an accuracy rate of 92.9%. The formula generated was then incorporated into the Java application, resulting in the development of a sex identification software (SIS). A sample of 36 (23 left and 13 right) femoral radiographs was used in order to test the software's reliability and sex was correctly identified in 32/36 cases, giving an accuracy rate of 91.7%. The radiographic technique proposed here performed better compared to conventional methods in the same population. From a forensic point of view it is a useful alternative method when semi-decomposed or charred remains are recovered in mass disasters or crime scenes and maceration is not an option. The application of metric methods in radiographs and the development of a highly specific software provides a useful and easy tool for sex identification that can be used in certain forensic cases in which osteometry does not apply.

Prehistoric cereal foods from Greece and Bulgaria: investigation of starch microstructure in experimental and archaeological charred remains

In order to investigate ancient cereal cooking practices, the microstructure of preserved starch in charred ground cereal remains recovered from prehistoric sites in Greece and Bulgaria has been analysed. A comparative modern set of cooked and subsequently charred cereals was produced. By scanning electron microscopy it is demonstrated that, under some conditions, distinctive cooked starch structure survives the charring process. Charring alone can occasionally produce morphological changes which typically occur during cooking. Despite this caveat, starch microstructure features which are indicative of heating in liquid, and which are visible in the experimental material, have been detected in the ancient charred cereal food remains. Although much more experimental investigation is required, it has been established that evidence for past food preparation survives in ancient charred starch microstructure.

Subsistence practices in an arid environment: a geoarchaeological investigation in an Iron Age site, the Negev Highlands, Israel

The Negev Highlands (southern Israel) is an arid zone characterized by settlement oscillations. One settlement peak occurred in the early Iron Age IIA (late 10th and early 9th centuries BC). The most conspicuous structure in many sites of this period is an oval compound comprised of an internal courtyard surrounded by rooms. Two hypotheses for the function of these oval compounds are that they served as Israelite fortresses which guarded the southern border and routes of the Solomonic kingdom, or that they represent local agro-pastoral groups. In order to gather more information regarding the subsistence practices conducted in these oval compounds, we carried out a small-scale excavation at the site of Atar Haroa. We focused on sediment sampling and used several geoarchaeological, as well as isotopic, techniques in order to identify macroscopic and microscopic remains related to animal husbandry and crop agriculture. The remains identified from the archaeological sediments were compared with modern reference materials collected from abandoned Bedouin camps. The excavation included two half rooms and several test pits in the courtyard of the oval compound, featuring one Iron Age occupation level composed of gray sediments and relatively small amounts of pottery, bones and macro-botanical charred remains. Micromorphological, mineralogical, dung spherulite and isotopic analyses carried out on the gray occupational sediments from the rooms show that they originate from wood ash and dung, both used as fuel. Similar analyses of the gray sediments in the courtyard show that they originate only from degraded livestock dung. Phytolith analyses show that the gray anthropogenic sediments have similar concentrations of phytoliths as in control (yellowish) sediments and in the dung of winter free-grazing desert livestock and lichen-grazing black dwarf Bedouin goats. Phytoliths indicative of cereal crops are completely absent in the archaeological dung remains, indicating that cereal crops were not processed by the site inhabitants. Based on ethnographic and archaeological parallels, and on the presence of grinding stones and absence of sickle blades in the excavated rooms, we infer that the inhabitants at the oval compound at Atar Haroa subsisted on livestock herding and bought or exchanged cereal grains. Our results support the hypothesis that the inhabitants at the oval compound at Atar Haroa were desert-adapted pastoralists, rather than garrisoned soldiers.

Identification of Traumatic Injury in Burned Cranial Bone: An Experimental Approach

Interpreting patterns of injury in victims of fire-related deaths poses challenges for forensic investigators. Determining manner of death (accident, suicide or homicide) using charred remains is compounded by the thermal distortion and fragmentation of soft and skeletal tissues. Heat degrades thin cranial structures and obscures the characteristic signatures of perimortem ballistic, blunt, and sharp force trauma in bone, making differentiation from thermal trauma difficult. This study documents the survivability and features of traumatic injury through all stages of burning for soft tissue reduction and organic degradation of cranial bone. Forty cadaver heads were burned in environments simulating forensic fires. Progression of thermal degradation was photographically documented throughout the destructive stages for soft tissues and bone to establish expected burn sequence patterns for the head. In addition to testing intact vaults, a percentage were selectively traumatized to introduce the variables of soft tissue disruption, fractures, impact marks, and incisions throughout the cremation process. Skeletal materials were recovered, reconstructed, and correlated with photographs to discern burn patterns and survivability of traumatic features. This study produced two important results: (1) Identification of preexistent trauma is possible in reconstructed burned cranial bone. Signatures of ballistic (internal and external bevel, secondary fractures), blunt force (impact site, radiating fractures), and sharp force (incisions, stabs, sectioning) survive the cremation process. (2) In non-traumatized specimens, the skull does not explode from steam pressure but does fragment as a result of external forces (collapsed debris, extinguishment methods) and handling. The features of both results are sequentially described throughout the progression of thermal destruction.

Vegetative Tissues from Mesolithic Sites in the Northern Netherlands

The potential of plant resources for the subsistence economies of early Holocene foraging groups in Northern Europe has long been the subject of scholarly interest. In the mid‐1970s both Paul Mellars (1976a) and David Clarke (1976) suggested that the edible biomass of temperate Europe was concentrated in resources such as nuts, roots, and tubers, which could have provided a substantial resource base. However, the lack of methodological tools to document the prehistoric use of these resources prevented a direct assessment of their significance (Mellars 1976a). This report presents the initial results of recent research on Mesolithic plant remains from the northern Netherlands which uses new techniques for the identification of fragmentary charred remains of vegetable tissues (Hather 1988, 1991, 1993) to document the range of utilized plant taxa from this important prehistoric period (Mason, Hather, and Hill‐man 1994). It demonstrates the significance of archaeo‐botanical analyses for any anthropological un...

Cultivated plant remains of the late Neolithic Michelsberg Culture at Heilbronn-Klingenberg (southwest Germany) - a comparison of different features, find assemblages and preservation conditions relating to the representation of archaeobotanical remains

A large area investigation was undertaken of the plant remains from a Michelsberg Culture (late Neolithic) settlement. The charred macroscopic remains and imprints in pieces of daub were expected to show both the spectrum of the cultivated plants there, and also the degree of their cultivation and use. The loess covered hill-top lies in a landscape with favourable climatic and soil conditions and is blocked off by two parallel ditches running in an arc. Ditches and pits filled with different sediments were investigated. The daub, unearthed in several pits, had been deliberately mixed with chaff of the glume wheats einkorn and emmer to temper it when it was originally made. The investigated imprints and charred plant remains give hints of spatial distribution of crop processing activities. To determine the amounts of the crops that were cultivated and used, it is necessary to study the charred remains. The degree of ubiquity (frequency of occurrence) of grains in the pit sediments seems to be the best indicator of the representation of cereals. Four main cereals were found: Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. aestivum/T. durum and Hordeum vulgare var. nudum. Pisum sativum also was an important cultivated plant, much more than Lens culinaris. The role of Linum usitatissimum and Papaver somniferum is less clear.

The Recruitment and Fortunes of Some London Freemen in the Mid-Sixteenth Century

T SHE registers and admission books of freemen of the City of London were almost all lost in the fire that in I 786 destroyed the Chamberlain's House at the Guildhall. However, two heavily damaged portions of one register book have in fact survived: the larger part is in the Department of Manuscripts, British Library, MS Egerton 2408, and the other in the Guildhall Library, MS 5I 2. Between them, they contain entries, or fragments of entries, covering well over a thousand admissions to the freedom of the City in the reigns of Edward VI and Queen Mary. Early this century, the interest of these charred remains became evident to Charles Welch, Librarian at the Guildhall and in his day a foremost authority on the history of the City.2 He translated and calendared the entries of the portion in the British Library, and printed his summary together with an already existing list of the entries legible in the more heavily damaged Guildhall Library portion. The whole was then published in i908 by the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, of which he was both honorary editor and honorary secretary.3 Eight years later, Welch was taken to task in the pages of The Genealogist by Bower Marsh, remembered today as editor of the Carpenters' Company records. Marsh re-examined both the original manuscripts and was able to demonstrate that the entries had been chronologically posted in a continuous or almost continuous period of time, from December I 55 I to September I 553.4 This point had not been seized by Welch, though it enormously enhances the interest of both parts of the register and consequently of his printed volume.5