Characteristics Of Raindrop Size Distribution Research Articles

Diurnal Variation Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution Observed by a Parsivel2 Disdrometer in the Ili River Valley

The diurnal variation characteristics of raindrop size distribution (RSD) in the Ili River Valley are investigated in this study, using the RSD data from May to September during 2020-2021 collected by a Parsivel2 disdrometer in Zhaosu. Significant diurnal variations (02–07, 08–13, 14–19, and 20-01 local standard time (LST)) of precipitation and RSD in Zhaosu are revealed during the rainy seasons. Precipitation mainly occurs in the late afternoon and early evening. A higher concentration of small raindrops is observed in the morning, whereas more mid-size and large raindrops are observed in the afternoon. The RSD exhibits diurnal differences between different rainfall rate classes; the diurnal difference of RSD is more pronounced in the case of high rainfall rates. Stratiform precipitation can occur at any time of the day, yet convective precipitation mainly occurs during the late afternoon and early evening. The RSD of stratiform rainfall shows a similar distribution over the four time periods. For convective rainfall, the concentration of small raindrops is the highest (lowest) over 02–07 (14–19) LST, while the highest (lowest) concentration of medium and large drops is observed over 14–19 (02–07) LST. Convective rain in the Ili River Valley over 14–19 LST can be characterized as the continental convective cluster, while in the rest time of the day, it is neither in the maritime cluster nor in the continental cluster. The empirical relationships between the radar reflectivity factor and rainfall rate (Z-R) for stratiform and convective rain types are also derived. The purpose of this study is to advance our understanding of precipitation microphysics in arid mountainous region.

Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution during rainy seasons in complicated mountain terrain

Abstract. In order to improve our understanding of the characteristics of raindrop size distribution (DSD) over complex mountainous terrain, the differences in DSD over the southern slopes, northern slopes, and interior of the Qilian Mountains were analyzed using 6 months of observations. For all rainfall events, the number concentrations of small and large raindrops in the interior and on the southern slopes were greater than on the northern slopes, but midsize raindrops were less. The DSD spectrum of the interior was more variable and differed significantly from that of the northern slopes. The differences in the normalized intercept parameters of the DSD for stratiform and convective rainfall were 8.3 % and 10.4 %, respectively, and those of the mass-weighted mean diameters were 10.0 % and 23.4 %, respectively, while the standard deviations of DSD parameters at interior sites were larger. The differences in the coefficient and exponent of the Z–R relationship were 2.5 % and 10.7 %, respectively, with an increasing value of the coefficient from the southern to the northern slopes for stratiform rainfall but the opposite for convective rainfall. In addition, the DSD characteristics and Z–R relationships were more similar at the ipsilateral sites and had smaller differences between the southern slopes and interior of the mountains.

Raindrop Size Distribution Characteristics of Heavy Precipitation Events Based on a PWS100 Disdrometer in the Alpine Mountains, Eastern Tianshan, China

As a key component of the hydrological cycle, knowledge and comprehension of precipitation formation and evolution are of leading significance. This study investigates the statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution for heavy precipitation events with observations collected by a Present Weather Sensor (PWS100) disdrometer located in the alpine area of eastern Tianshan, China. The characteristics are quantified based on heavy rain, heavy snow, and hail precipitation events classified using the rainfall intensity and the precipitation-related weather codes (US National Weather Service). On average, the heavy precipitation events in the headwaters of the Urumqi River are dominated by medium-sized (2–4 mm) raindrops. As well, we investigate mass-weighted mean diameter–normalized intercept parameter scatterplots, which demonstrate that the heavy precipitation events in alpine regions of the Tianshan Mountains can be identified as maritime-like clusters. The concentration of raindrops in heavy precipitation is the highest overall, while the concentration of raindrops in heavy snow is the lowest when the diameter is lower than 1.3 mm. The power–law relationships of radar reflectivity (Z) and rain rate (R) [Z = ARb] for the heavy rain, heavy snow, and hail precipitation events are also calculated. The Z–R relationship of heavy rain and heavy snow in this work has a lower coefficient value of A (10 and 228.7, respectively) and a higher index value of b (2.6 and 2.1, respectively), and the hail events are the opposite (A = 551.5, b = 1.3), compared to the empirical relation (Z = 300R1.4). Furthermore, the possible thermodynamics and general atmospheric circulation that cause the distinctions in the raindrop size distribution characteristics between alpine areas and other parts of the Tianshan Mountains are also debated in this work. The headwaters of the Urumqi River in alpine areas have relatively colder and wetter surroundings in the near-surface layer than the foothills of the Tianshan Mountains during the precipitation process. Meanwhile, a lower temperature, a higher relative humidity, a more efficient collision coalescence mechanism, and glacier local microclimate effects (temperature jump, inverse glacier temperature, glacier wind) at the headwaters of the Urumqi River during the precipitation process are probably partly responsible for more medium- and large-size drops in the mountains.

Attenuation Correction of the X-Band Dual-Polarization Phased Array Radar Based on Observed Raindrop Size Distribution Characteristics

X-band dual-polarization phased array radar (XPAR-D) possesses high resolution and plays a significant role in detecting meso- and micro-scale convective systems. However, the precipitation attenuation it endures necessitates an effective correction method. This study selected radar data from XPAR-D at the peak of Maofeng Mountain in Guangzhou during 16–17 May 2020 from three precipitation stages after quality control. Attenuation coefficients were calculated for different precipitation types through scattering simulations of raindrop size distribution (RSD) data. Next, an attenuation correction algorithm (MZH-KDP method) was proposed for the radar reflectivity factor (ZH) according to different raindrop types and compared to the ZH-KDP method currently in use. The results indicate that the attenuation amount of XPAR-D echoes depends on the attenuation path and echo intensity. When the attenuation path is shorter and the echo intensity is weaker, the amount of attenuation and correction is smaller. Difficulties arise when there are noticeable deviations, which are challenging to resolve using attenuation correction methods. Longer attenuation paths and stronger echoes highlight the advantages of the MZH-KDP method, while the ZH-KDP method tends to overcorrect the bias. The MZH-KDP method outperforms the ZH-KDP method for different precipitation types. The superior correction capability of the MZH-KDP method provides a significant advantage in improving the performance of XPAR-D for the detection of extreme weather.

Microphysical Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution and Implications for Dual-Polarization Radar Quantitative Precipitation Estimations in the Tianshan Mountains, China

In order to improve the understanding of the microphysical characteristics of raindrop size distribution (DSD) under different rainfall rates (R) classes, and broaden the knowledge of the impact of radar wavelengths and R classes on the QPE of dual-polarization radars in the Tianshan Mountains, a typical arid area in China, we investigated the microphysical characteristics of DSD across R classes and dual-polarimetric radar QPE relationships across radar wavelengths and R classes, based on the DSD data from a PARSIVEL2 disdrometer at Zhaosu in the Tianshan Mountains during the summers of 2020 and 2021. As the R class increased, the DSD became wider and flatter. The mean value of the mass-weighted mean diameters (Dm) increased, while the mean value of logarithm normalized intercept parameters (log10 Nw) decreased after increasing from C1 to C3, as the R class increased. The largest contributions to R and the radar reflectivity factor from large raindrops (diameter > 3 mm) accounted for approximately 50% and 97%, respectively, while 84% of the total raindrops were small raindrops (diameter < 1 mm). Dual-polarization radars—horizontal polarization reflectivity (Zh), differential reflectivity (Zdr), and specific differential phase (Kdp)—were retrieved based on the DSD data using the T-matrix scattering method. The DSD-based polarimetric radar QPE relations of a single-parameter (R(Zh), R(Kdp)), and double-parameters (R(Zh,Zdr), R(Kdp,Zdr)) on the S-, C-, and X-bands were derived and evaluated. Overall, the performance of the R(Kdp) (R(Kdp,Zdr)) scheme was better than that of R(Zh) (R(Zh,Zdr)) for the QPE in the three bands. Furthermore, we have for the first time confirmed and quantified the performance differences in the QPE relationship of dual-polarization radars under different schemes, radar wavelengths, and R classes in typical arid areas of China. Therefore, selecting an appropriate dual-polarization radar band and QPE scheme for different R classes is necessary to improve the QPE ability compared with an independent scheme under all R classes.

Raindrop size distribution and microphysical features of the extremely severe rainstorm on 20 July 2021 in Zhengzhou, China

By using the observation data of four DSG5-type disdrometers, four automatic weather stations and two dual-polarization Doppler weather radars, this paper analyzes the characteristics of raindrop size distributions (DSDs) and their integral parameters during the severe precipitation in Henan Province, China, specially focusing on the extremely severe rainstorm on the 20 July 2021 in Zhengzhou City. The results show that: (1) In line with most of the severe precipitation in northern China, the July 2021 extreme precipitation were dominated by small raindrops, but medium-sized raindrops with diameter D in 2–4 mm contributed 61.28% to the rain rate R during the time period of extremely severe rainfall at Zhengzhou (ZZ) station, and the raindrops with D > 4 mm contributed 53.74% to the radar reflectivity factor Z. (2) Quantitative evaluation of the gamma model of DSD for different values of R is carried out, and the fitting effect of the gamma model is better for the raindrop spectrum with a single peak structure. However, this method cannot reflect the double-peak structure when R is large. (3) Some differences have been found in the Z-R relationship between Z and R among the four stations (GY, XM, XY, and ZZ). The maximum value of fitting coefficient a appears at the ZZ station, which is close to the a values in the Meiyu season in eastern China. For the other three stations, the a values are comparable to those of typhoons in the western Pacific, but the fitting coefficient b values are less different. (4) The average vertical profiles of dual-polarization radar parameters reveal the microphysical characteristics of the extremely severe rainstorm, that is, there were active ice-phase and warm-rain microphysical processes in the convective system of the extremely severe rainfall, of which the warm-rain process was more dominant.

Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distributions in the Southwest Mountain Areas of China According to Seasonal Variation and Rain Types

The precipitation and raindrop size distribution (RSD) characteristics of the four seasons and different rain types were studied using a PARSIVEL2 raindrop disdrometer set in the southwest mountain areas of China from 2019 to 2021. The seasonal precipitation in the southwest mountain areas was mainly stratiform rain. The peaks of the RSD were about 1–2 orders of magnitude higher than those in the plains. The convective rain in spring and autumn was very close to the ocean-like convective mass. The local shape–slope (μ–Λ), radar reflectivity–rain rate (Z–R), and kinetic energy–rain rate (KE–R) relationships were further derived, and the diversity of these relationships was mainly due to the variability of the RSDs. In addition, the differences in the RSD characteristics between the top and the foot of the mountain during a typical precipitation process in the summer of 2020 were further compared. It was found that the number density of the small particles at the top of the mountain was higher than that at the foot of the mountain due to the broken large raindrops caused by the high wind speed, while the high evaporation rate, strong convective available potential energy (CPAE), and water vapor content at the foot of the mountain could strengthen the RSD, making the number density of the large raindrops at the foot of the mountain higher than that at the top.

Statistical Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution in the South China Monsoon Region (Guangdong Province)

Statistical Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution in the South China Monsoon Region (Guangdong Province)

The Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distributions in Different Climatological Regions in South Korea

To understand the microphysical characteristics of rainfall in four different climatological regions (called BOS, BUS, CPO, and JIN) in South Korea, DSDs and their variables, including the mass-weighted mean diameter (Dm) and normalized number concentration (logNw), were examined. To examine the characteristics of DSDs at four sites with different climatology and topography, data measured from Parsivel disdrometer and wind direction from Automatic Weather System (AWS) during rainy seasons from June to August for three years (2018 to 2020) were analyzed. The DSDs variables were calculated using Gamma distribution model. In the coastal area, larger raindrops with a lower number concentration occurred, whereas smaller raindrops with a higher number concentration dominated in the middle land and mountain region. The mountain area of CPO and middle land area of JIN had a larger contribution to the rain rate than that of the coastal area of BOS and JIN in the range of the smallest diameter. The contribution of the drop size to the total number concentration at the CPO and JIN sites was larger (smaller) than that at BOS and BUS in the smallest (larger) diameter. The average shape and slope parameter of gamma model were higher values at the mountain area than at other sites for both rain types, Z-R relation and polarimetric variables were also shown different values at the four studied sites. The intercept coefficient of Z-R relation showed higher values in the mountain area and middle land area than the coastal area. The slope values of Z-R relation were the smallest in the mountain area. The polarimetric variables of ZH and ZDR were shown highest (lowest) value at the coastal region of BOS (mountain area of CPO) site for both rain types. The Dm-rose, which shows the Dm distributions with the wind direction, was used in this study. In the coastal area (mountain and middle land area), the dominant wind was east–southeast (east) direction. The ratio of the smaller diameter to the middle size at BOS was much smaller than that at CPO. In the analysis of the hourly distribution of the Dm and logNw, there were two and four peaks of Dm at BUS and BOS, respectively. There was one peak of the Dm at the CPO and JIN sites. The time variation of the Dm was much higher than that of the logNw.

Raindrop size distribution characteristics in summer of a nival glacial zone in eastern Tianshan, Central Asia

Precipitation is a key component of the hydrological cycle, which is critical to understanding its formation and evolution. In this study, based on the observation data of the PWS100 located at the meteorological observation site at the terminal of Urumqi Glacier No. 1, eastern Tianshan Mountains, the statistical characteristics of the summer raindrop size distribution (DSD) were analyzed, and the DSD characteristics of five different rainfall rates(R) and two rainfall types (convective and stratiform) were investigated for the daytime and nighttime. The average raindrop spectral width was the largest in class III (1 < R < 5 mm h−1). The result showed that the raindrop concentration increased with the rainfall rate. The maximum raindrop concentration was at class IV (5 < R < 10 mm h−1), when the raindrop diameter was higher than 1.74 mm. The small and medium size raindrops played a dominant role in precipitation composition in the head watershed of the Urumqi River, contributing 98% of the total raindrop. The convective precipitation at the headwaters was divided into continental clusters. The stratiform/convective Dm-log10Nw was characterized by a large mass-weighted mean diameter Dm = 1.523/2.608, and a generalized intercept log10Nw = 2.841/3.469. N(D) of convective precipitation was significantly different between the daytime and nighttime, while that of stratiform precipitation was almost the same. The constraint relationship between R-Dm and R-log10Nw of these two precipitation types was deduced, the exponent of the R-log10Nw relationship of the two precipitation types was negative, and the Dm value of stratiform precipitation tended to be stable at a higher rainfall rate (1–2 mm). Finally, we deduced the power-law relationship between radar reflectivity (Z) and rain rate (R) [Z = A*Rb] for stratiform and convective precipitation at the headwaters. Z = 698.8R2.0 was for stratiform, and Z = 47.1R2.0 was for convective. These results, for the first time, offer insights into the microphysical nature of precipitation in the head watershed of the Urumqi River during the summer and provide essential information that could be useful for precipitation retrievals based on weather radar observations.

Microphysical Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution and Implications for Radar Rainfall Estimation Over the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau

AbstractRaindrop size distribution (DSD) observations with OTT PARSIVEL2 disdrometers at Dari and Delingha in the northeast of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) during summer 2019 and 2020 were utilized to investigate the DSD characteristics and DSD‐based polarimetric radar quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) relations on the X, Ku, and Ka bands. The DSD characteristics were examined for different rain rates (R) and for stratiform and convective rainfall types. The raindrop spectra became wider and flatter as the R increased. Gamma parameters N0, μ, and λ (representing intercept, shape, and slope parameters, respectively) were smaller for convective compared to stratiform rainfall, corresponding to the broader and flatter convective raindrop spectra. The μ–λ and Dm–log10Nw relationships were also examined in our study. There was a significant μ–λ correlation, with a quadratic function relationship. The summer convective rainfall at both Dari and Delingha showed continental‐like clusters based on the Dm–log10Nw relationship. The DSD‐based two‐parameter polarimetric radar QPE relations (R(Zh, ZDR), R(KDP, ZDR)), and one‐parameter relations (R(Zh), R(KDP)) at the X, Ku, and Ka bands were proposed, and the R computed from DSD was implemented to evaluate these relations. The performance of two‐parameter models was stronger than that of one‐parameter models. Moreover, R(Zh, ZDR) and R(KDP, ZDR) performed better for the X and Ku bands, while the R(KDP, ZDR) model performed best for the Ka band. The ground‐based Ka/Ku band measurement Z at Dari was used to evaluate the Z–R and R−Dm QPE relations. The R−Dm relations had a better performance compared to the Z–R relations. The Ku radar‐derived R series are more consistent with the DSD measured counterparts. The research of the dual‐polarization radar parameter models is vital to develop radar QPE algorithms on the TP.

The Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution at Windward and Leeward Side over Mountain Area

To analyze the difference in the microphysical development characteristics of orographic rainfall, several Parsivel disdrometers were installed along the windward and leeward slope of a mountain. There were differences in the raindrop size distribution according to the difference in height and distance from the center of the mountain. In low-altitude coastal areas and adjacent areas, the number concentration of raindrops smaller than 1 mm was relatively lower than in mountainous areas, and the rain rate increased with the growth in the size of the raindrops. On the other hand, a higher rain rate was observed as the number concentration of raindrops smaller than 1 mm increased in the hillside area. The increase in the number concentration of small raindrops was evident at the LCL (lifting condensation level) altitude. The main factors affecting the increase in the rain rate on the windward and leeward slopes were the concentration of raindrops and the growth of raindrops, which showed regional differences. As a result of a PCA (principal component analysis), it was found that raindrop development by vapor deposition and weak convection were the main rainfall development characteristics on the windward and leeward slopes, respectively. The difference in regional precipitation development characteristics in mountainous areas affects the parameters of the rainfall estimation relational expression. This means that the rainfall relation calculated through the disdrometer observation data observed in a specific mountainous area can cause spatial and quantitative errors.

Comparison of summer raindrop size distribution characteristics in the western and central Tianshan Mountains of China

AbstractThe microphysical processes of cloud and precipitation in the Tianshan Mountains still remain unclear due to the complex terrain and the lack of ground‐based observational data. In this study, the characteristics of summer raindrop size distribution (RSD) in the western and central Tianshan Mountains of China were investigated in 2020 and 2021. According to the average raindrop spectra, the RSD characteristics exhibit significant differences that the concentration of medium and large particles is relatively higher at Zhaosu than that at Tianchi. Weak precipitation prevails in the Tianshan Mountains most of the time, yet moderate rainfall and heavy rainfall have a great impact on the accumulated rainfall amount. For each rainfall rate class, raindrops of diameter less than 0.75mm have a lower concentration and raindrops of diameter greater than 3 mm have a higher concentration at Zhaosu as compared to those at Tianchi. Compared with Tianchi, Zhaosu has a larger mass‐weighted mean diameter (Dm) and a lower normalized intercept parameter (log10Nw). Compared with the classical convective spectrum, the RSDs at both Zhaosu and Tianchi are similar to the continental convective cluster. The relationships between the shape and slope (μ–Λ), and radar reflectivity and rainfall rate (Z–R) exhibit a significant difference in the western and central Tianshan Mountains of China.

Raindrop Size Distribution Characteristics of the Western Pacific Tropical Cyclones Measured in the Palau Islands

Due to the severe threat of tropical cyclones to human life, recent years have witnessed an increase in the investigations on raindrop size distributions of tropical cyclones to improve their quantitative precipitation estimation algorithms and modeling simulations. So far, the raindrop size distributions of tropical cyclones using disdrometer measurements have been conducted at coastal and inland stations, but such studies are still missing for oceanic locations. To the authors’ knowledge, the current study examines—for the first time—the raindrop size distributions of fourteen tropical cyclones observed (during 2003–2007) at an oceanic station, Aimeliik, located in the Palau islands in the Western Pacific. The raindrop size distributions of Western Pacific tropical cyclones measured in the Palau islands showed unlike characteristics between stratiform and convective clusters, with a larger mass-weighted mean diameter and smaller normalized intercept parameter in the convective type. The contribution of the drop diameters to the total number concentration showed a gradual decrease with the increase in drop diameter size. Raindrop size distributions of Western Pacific tropical cyclones measured in the Palau islands differed slightly from Taiwan and Japan. The helpfulness of empirical relations in raindrop size distribution in rainfall estimation algorithms of ground-based (Z–R, μ–Λ, Dm–R, and Nw–R) and remote-sensing (σm–Dm, μo–Dm, Dm–Zku, and Dm–Zka) radars are evaluated. Furthermore, the present study also related the rainfall kinetic energy of fourteen tropical cyclones with rainfall rate and mass-weighted mean diameter (KEtime–R, KEmm–R, and KEmm–Dm). The raindrop size distribution empirical relations appraised in this study offer a chance to: (1) enhance the rain retrieval algorithms of ground-based, remote sensing radars; and (2) improve rainfall kinetic energy estimations using disdrometers and GPM DPR in rainfall erosivity studies.

Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distributions during Meiyu Season in Mount Lushan, Eastern China

Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distributions during Meiyu Season in Mount Lushan, Eastern China

Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distributions in Chongqing Observed by a Dense Network of Disdrometers

AbstractThis study investigates the characteristics of raindrop size distribution (RSD) including the temporal and spatial variabilities and the summer rain RSD features using 34 Parsivel disdrometers data from Jan. 2015 to Jan. 2016 in Chongqing, an inland municipality in Southwest China. The observed RSDs are fitted with the gamma distribution (N(D) = N0Dμe−λD) in this study. Rainfall in summer differs greatly from winter with larger rain rate, rain water content and variabilities. From winter to summer, raindrop sizes increase as the frequency of convective rain increases, and the diurnal variabilities of raindrop sizes are greatly enlarged. The spatial variabilities of N0, λ and μ are relatively weak and change little in summer. The summer rainfall RSD characteristics and parameter relationships in Chongqing are different from other regions (Nanjing, Beijing, Zhuhai and Daocheng) in China. A novel diagnosed relation between the shape parameter of the gamma distribution (μ) and the mean volume diameter (Dv) is proposed based on the large amount of observations, which allows for a wider range of the mean volume diameter of raindrops compared to traditional μ − λ relations in microphysics parameterizations.

Raindrop Size Distribution and Rain Characteristics of the 2017 Great Hunan Flood Observed with a Parsivel2 Disdrometer

Disdrometer observations obtained by an OTT Parsivel2 during the 2017 Great Hunan Flood from 1:00 a.m. LST 23 June 2017 to 4:00 a.m. LST 2 July 2017 in Changsha, Hunan Province, southern China, are analyzed to diagnose characteristics of raindrop size distribution (DSD). This event was characterized by a large number of small- to medium-sized raindrops (diameters smaller than 1.5 mm) and the mean median volume diameter (D0) is about 1.04 mm. The median values of rain rate R (1.57 mm h−1), liquid water content W (0.10 g m−3), and radar reflectivity Z (25.7 dBZ) are smaller than that of the 2013 Great Colorado Flood. This event was composed of two intense rainfall periods and a stratiform period, and notable distinctions of rainfall microphysics among the three rainfall episodes are observed. Two intense rainfall periods were characterized by widespread and intense convection rains with a surface reflectivity of 48.8~56.7 dBZ. A maximum diameter of raindrops up to 7.5 mm was observed, as well as high concentrations of small and midsize drops, resulting in large rainfall amounts during the two intense rainfall episodes. The mean radar reflectivity of 22.6 dBZ, total rainfall of 17.85 mm and the maximum raindrop of approximately 4.25 mm were observed during the stratiform rainfall episode. The composite DSD for each rainfall episode peaked at 0.56 mm but higher concentrations of raindrops appeared in the two intense rainfall episodes. The Z-R relationships derived from the disdrometer measurements reflect the unusual characteristics of DSD during the flood. As a result, the standard NEXRAD Z-R relationship (Z = 300R1.4) strongly underestimated hourly rainfall by up to 27.5%. In addition, the empirical relations between rainfall kinetic energy (KE) versus rainfall intensity (R) and mean mass diameter (Dm) are also derived using DSDs to further investigate the impacts of raindrop properties on the rainfall erosivity.

Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution in Typhoon Nida (2016) before and after Landfall in Southern China from 2D Video Disdrometer Data

During the passage of Typhoon Nida, the raindrop size distribution parameters, the raindrop spectra, the shape and slope (μ–Λ) relationship, the radar reflectivity factor, and rain rate (Z–R) relationship were investigated based on a two-dimensional (2D) video disdrometer in Guangdong, China, from August 1 to 2, 2016. Due to the underlying surface difference between the ocean and land, this process was divided into two distinct periods (before landfall and after landfall). The characteristics of raindrop size distribution between the period before landfall and the period after landfall were quite distinct. The period after landfall exhibited higher concentrations of each size bin (particularly small drops) and wider raindrop spectral width than the period before landfall. Compared with the period before landfall, the period after landfall had a higher average mass-weighted mean diameter Dm that was smaller than those of other TCs from the same ocean (the Pacific). The μ–Λ relationship and Z–R relationship in this study were also compared with other TCs from the same ocean (the Pacific). This investigation of the microphysical characteristics of Typhoon Nida before landfall and after landfall may improve radar quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) products and microphysical schemes by providing useful information.

Statistical Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution in Monsoon Season over South China Sea

The South China Sea (SCS) is the largest and southernmost sea in China. Water vapor from the SCS is the primary source of precipitation over coastal areas during the summer monsoon season and may cause the uneven distribution of rainfall in southern China. Deep insight into the spatial variability of raindrop size distribution (DSD) is essential for understanding precipitation microphysics, since DSD contains abundant information about rainfall microphysics processes. However, compared to the studies of DSDs over mainland China, very little is known about DSDs over Chinese ocean areas, especially over the South China Sea (SCS). This study investigated the statistical characteristics of the DSD in summer monsoon seasons using the second-generation Particle Size and Velocity (Parsivel2) installed on the scientific research vessel that measured the size and velocity of raindrops over the SCS. In this study, the characteristics of precipitation over the SCS for daytime and nighttime rains were analyzed for different precipitation systems and upon different rain rates. It was found that: (1) rain events were more frequent during the late evening to early morning; (2) more than 78.2% of the raindrops’ diameters were less than 2 mm, and the average value of mass-weighted mean diameter Dm (1.46 mm) of the SCS is similar to that over land in the southern China; (3) the stratiform precipitation features a relatively high concentration of medium to large-sized rain drops compared to other regions; (4) the DSD in the SCS agreed with a three-parameter gamma distribution for the small raindrop diameter. Furthermore, a possible factor for significant DSD variability in the ocean compared with the coast and large islands is also discussed.

Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution over the Western Ghats of India: wet versus dry spells of the Indian summer monsoon

Abstract. The nature of raindrop size distribution (DSD) is analyzed for wet and dry spells of the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) in the Western Ghats (WG) region using Joss–Waldvogel disdrometer (JWD) measurements during the ISM period (June–September) in 2012–2015. The observed DSDs are fitted with a gamma distribution. Observations show a higher number of smaller drops in dry spells and more midsize and large drops in wet spells. The DSD spectra show distinct diurnal variation during wet and dry spells. The dry spells exhibit a strong diurnal cycle with two peaks, while the diurnal cycle is not very prominent in the wet spells. Results reveal the microphysical characteristics of warm rain during both wet and dry periods. However, the underlying dynamical parameters, such as moisture availability and vertical wind, cause the differences in DSD characteristics. The higher moisture and strong vertical winds can provide sufficient time for the raindrops to grow bigger in wet spells, whereas higher temperature may lead to evaporation and drop breakup processes in dry spells. In addition, the differences in DSD spectra with different rain rates are also observed. The DSD spectra are further analyzed by separating them into stratiform and convective rain types. Finally, an empirical relationship between the slope parameter λ and the shape parameter μ is derived by fitting the quadratic polynomial during wet and dry spells as well as for stratiform and convective types of rain. The μ–λ relations obtained in this work are slightly different compared to previous studies. These differences could be related to different rain microphysics such as collision–coalescence and breakup.