Changes In Unit Costs Research Articles

ОБОСНОВАНИЕ ОПТИМАЛЬНОГО УРОВНЯ ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИИ ТРАКТОРОВ В АГРАРНОМ ПРОИЗВОДСТВЕ

The process of operation of tractors is inextricably linked with conditions that affect their performance. These conditions include operational, organizational and climatic conditions on the one hand and technical operation on the other, i.e. the technique is influenced by operating conditions. A comprehensive, dimensionless indicator of the operating conditions of tractors in agricultural production is the level of their operation. The level of operation of the tractor, this is the state of their operation on the farm, which is determined by the degree of implementation of measures for the technical operation of equipment and the percentage of tractors involved in labor-intensive processes when used for their intended purpose. The theoretical level of operation of the tractor can vary from 0 to 1. At the same time, 1- corresponds to the state of operation of the tractor, in which the resource consumption is minimal, i.e. the degree of implementation of the generalized factors of technical operation meets the requirements of State standard and the tractor performs work with the lowest resistivity; 0 - theoretical, corresponds to the state of operation of the tractor, in which the resource consumption is maximum, i.e. technical operation of the tractor is not performed and the tractor performs work with maximum resistivity. The article discusses the optimization of the level of operation of tractors, presents a methodology for optimizing this indicator and provides a calculation using the example of farms in the Republic of Tatarstan. Regularities of changes in unit costs for eliminating failures and downtime depending on the level of operation of tractors are obtained. Calculations are given to justify the optimal values of operating hours before repair, between repairs and operating hours before decommissioning, depending on various values of the level of operation of tractors.

Productivité sectorielle du travail et compétitivité de l’économie de la Nouvelle-Calédonie

A small island economy, New Caledonia stands out amidst other French overseas territories, and even more so the islands of Oceania, for its high standard of living and human development. However, it also suffers from the disadvantages common to small island economies (remoteness, small market size, etc.). The slowdown in growth observed over the last few years reveals how the New Caledonian model of “ extensive” growth is losing pace overall : producing more from more of inputs to satisfy the domestic demand, protecting itself from international competition in the process, and drawing largely on nickel mining. This article aims to assess the competitiveness of New Caledonia''s economy. It puts forward labour productivity indicators for the main market sectors of the New Caledonian economy from 1992 to 2014 to derive changes in unit costs and finally in real exchange rates. It shows that labour productivity has tended to stagnate since the early 2000s, while at the same time increases in minimum wage contribute to an increase in unit costs and a decline in competitiveness.

Sensitivity analysis of key operating parameters of combine harvesters

The sensitivity analysis of key operating parameters on the average annual sub-profit in a group of three combine harvesters operating in companies providing agricultural services were analysed. Based on the results of the cost analysis, the following key operating parameters with the greatest influence on the costs were identified: the purchase price of the machine, the price of fuel, maintenance costs, personnel costs and annual performance. These parameters were used in the sensitivity analysis to investigate their effect on unit costs. Changing the above-mentioned parameters is calculated within ± 30% from their mean value. To perform a sensitivity analysis of the average annual sub-profit of combine harvesters, the unit price of mechanized work was additionally used. The results showed that greatest impact on both the average annual earnings of combines operation and on the changes in unit cost was those of the annual performance of the combine harvester, combine harvester purchase price and the cost of fuel. On the other hand, maintenance and personnel costs had a smaller influence concerning these changes of parameters.

International competitiveness in post-Keynesian growth theory: controversies and empirical evidence

A fundamental starting point for post-Keynesian theory concerning growth in open economies is succinctly expressed in the following statement by Kaldor: ‘[T]he main autonomous factor governing both the level and the rate of growth of effective demand of an industrial country…is the external demand for its exports: and the main factor governing the latter is international competitiveness, which in turn depends on the level of its industrial cost relatively to other industrial exporters’ (Kaldor, 1971, p. 7; italics added). Moreover, thanks to increasing returns in manufacturing, export expansion and international competitiveness would interact so as to create vicious or virtuous circles of cumulative causation. A few years later Kaldor, having found a positive correlation between the time changes of the main industrial countries’ relative manufacturing export shares and that of their relative unit costs—a correlation that became known as the ‘Kaldor paradox’—dismissed his original cumulative causation theory and adopted a version close to Harrod’s ‘foreign trade multiplier’. The purpose of this paper is to reaffirm the Kaldorian cumulative causation theory in its original version, by providing a firmer analytical basis and showing that, contrary to the ‘Kaldor paradox’, time changes in export performance must be ‘explained’ by levels rather than by changes in unit costs.

Estimating the Cost of Early Infant Male Circumcision in Zimbabwe: Results From a Randomized Noninferiority Trial of AccuCirc Device Versus Mogen Clamp.

Background:Safe and cost-effective programs for implementing early infant male circumcision (EIMC) in Africa need to be piloted. We present results on a relative cost analysis within a randomized noninferiority trial of EIMC comparing the AccuCirc device with Mogen clamp in Zimbabwe.Methods:Between January and June 2013, male infants who met inclusion criteria were randomized to EIMC through either AccuCirc or Mogen clamp conducted by a doctor, using a 2:1 allocation ratio. We evaluated the overall unit cost plus the key cost drivers of EIMC using both AccuCirc and Mogen clamp. Direct costs included consumable and nonconsumable supplies, device, personnel, associated staff training, and environmental costs. Indirect costs comprised capital and support personnel costs. In 1-way sensitivity analyses, we assessed potential changes in unit costs due to variations in main parameters, one at a time, holding all other values constant.Results:The unit costs of EIMC using AccuCirc and Mogen clamp were $49.53 and $55.93, respectively. Key cost drivers were consumable supplies, capacity utilization, personnel costs, and device price. Unit prices are likely to be lowest at full capacity utilization and increase as capacity utilization decreases. Unit prices also fall with lower personnel salaries and increase with higher device prices.Conclusions:EIMC has a lower unit cost when using AccuCirc compared with Mogen clamp. To minimize unit costs, countries planning to scale-up EIMC using AccuCirc need to control costs of consumables and personnel. There is also need to negotiate a reasonable device price and maximize capacity utilization.

Cost of crime: A systematic review

PurposeThis study aims to systematically search and review all the relevant studies that have estimated the cost of crime of adult offenders. MethodsFifteen databases were searched for published studies and grey literature. We included studies that estimated the cost of crime of adult offenders. Due to high heterogeneity results were synthesised descriptively. ResultsTwenty-one studies estimated the cost of crime. There was considerable variance in the estimated total costs of crime and studies from the United States consistently reported the highest total costs. All the studies consistently included robbery and burglary in the total cost estimate. Homicide was ranked as the most costly offence and accounted on average for 31% of the total cost of crime, followed by drug offence (21%) and fraud (17%). Crime categories that involved violence to a person were associated with large intangible costs. ConclusionsWhile it is difficult to precisely determine what caused the large variance in the total cost estimates, we think that it could be due to changes in unit costs, changes in crime trends, and variations in the methods used to estimate costs. The findings from this systematic review highlight the need for more up-to-date studies with better reporting standards.

Change in medical spending attributable to diabetes: national data from 1987 to 2011.

Diabetes care has changed substantially in the past 2 decades. We examined the change in medical spending and use related to diabetes between 1987 and 2011. Using the 1987 National Medical Expenditure Survey and the Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys in 2000-2001 and 2010-2011, we compared per person medical expenditures and uses among adults ≥ 18 years of age with or without diabetes at the three time points. Types of medical services included inpatient care, emergency room (ER) visits, outpatient visits, prescription drugs, and others. We also examined the changes in unit cost, defined by the expenditure per encounter for medical services. The excess medical spending attributed to diabetes was $2,588 (95% CI, $2,265 to $3,104), $4,205 ($3,746 to $4,920), and $5,378 ($5,129 to $5,688) per person, respectively, in 1987, 2000-2001, and 2010-2011. Of the $2,790 increase, prescription medication accounted for 55%; inpatient visits accounted for 24%; outpatient visits accounted for 15%; and ER visits and other medical spending accounted for 6%. The growth in prescription medication spending was due to the increase in both the volume of use and unit cost, whereas the increase in outpatient expenditure was almost entirely driven by more visits. In contrast, the increase in inpatient and ER expenditures was caused by the rise of unit costs. In the past 2 decades, managing diabetes has become more expensive, mostly due to the higher spending on drugs. Further studies are needed to assess the cost-effectiveness of increased spending on drugs.

Cost-benefit analysis of low-noise pavements: dust into the calculations

This paper presents a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of roads noise measures in Norway. Low-noise pavement alternatives were compared to stone mastic asphalt with a maximum aggregate size of 11 mm. The low-noise alternatives were expected to reduce the noise levels by 1–4.5 dB over their lifetime, compared to the reference, but had shorter lifetime and, mostly, higher investment cost. A new element included into our CBA of low-noise asphalts is their property in terms of asphalt-wearing and dust production. Given a relationship between asphalt-wearing and airborne particulate matter, there is a potential health impact of pavement choice. Official valuations of both noise changes and PM10 changes were applied for the benefit estimations. Thin-layer asphalts obtained higher benefit-cost ratios than porous asphalts, mainly due to small changes in unit costs and technical lifetime compared to the reference. Alterations in dust production had considerable weight in the benefits, but did not considerably alter the ranking of asphalts compared to analyses not taking dust into account.

Long-term care cost drivers and expenditure projection to 2036 in Hong Kong

BackgroundHong Kong's rapidly ageing population, characterised by one of the longest life expectancies and the lowest fertility rate in the world, is likely to drive long-term care (LTC) expenditure higher. This study aims to identify key cost drivers and derive quantitative estimates of Hong Kong's LTC expenditure to 2036.MethodsWe parameterised a macro actuarial simulation with data from official demographic projections, Thematic Household Survey 2004, Hong Kong's Domestic Health Accounts and other routine data from relevant government departments, Hospital Authority and other LTC service providers. Base case results were tested against a wide range of sensitivity assumptions.ResultsTotal projected LTC expenditure as a proportion of GDP reflected secular trends in the elderly dependency ratio, showing a shallow dip between 2004 and 2011, but thereafter yielding a monotonic rise to reach 3.0% by 2036. Demographic changes would have a larger impact than changes in unit costs on overall spending. Different sensitivity scenarios resulted in a wide range of spending estimates from 2.2% to 4.9% of GDP. The availability of informal care and the setting of formal care as well as associated unit costs were important drivers of expenditure.ConclusionThe "demographic window" between the present and 2011 is critical in developing policies to cope with the anticipated burgeoning LTC burden, in concert with the related issues of health care financing and retirement planning.

Changing cost of HIV interventions in the context of scaling-up in India

A rapid scaling up of HIV interventions in India is anticipated, but systematic information on how costs of HIV interventions change over time and programme scale is not available to inform planning. We studied the changes in unit costs of two major interventions, voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) and sex worker programmes in the south Indian state of Andhra Pradesh between 2002-2003 and 2005-2006 fiscal years. Economic costs (from the provider perspective) and output data from 17 publicly funded VCT centers and 14 sex worker programmes were collected using standardized methods. We calculated unit costs for each programme in each period and explored possible reasons for the changes seen. In 2005-2006, the VCT centers served 66 445 clients and the sex worker programmes served 32 550. The unit cost of providing VCT dropped over 3 years by half to Indian Rupees (INR) 147.5 (US$3.33) mainly because the number of clients doubled. There was no decrease in the average time spent counseling each client. The unit cost of providing services to sex workers increased 2.4 times over 3 years to INR 1401 (US$31.6) as a result of increases in male condom distribution, staff salaries and training, and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, all suggesting improved services. The unit cost of these two interventions changed dramatically over a 3-year period, but in opposite directions. The current unit cost for VCT in Andhra Pradesh is much lower than the estimated global average for low-income settings. These local longitudinal cost data are useful to inform the currently planned scaling up of HIV interventions in India.

Healthcare Costs: The Engine Driving the Decline in Insurance

he increase in the percent of the population that is uninsured in both North Carolina 1 and across the nation 2 is driven by the increasing costs of health insurance premiums. Nationally, health insurance premiums increased 65% between 2000 and 2004. This rise was more than six times greater than general inflation (9.7%), and more than five times the wage growth (12.2%). 3 The increase in premiums makes it harder for employers to offer insurance to employees and for individuals to purchase healthcare coverage. Research indicates that for every 10% increase in health insurance premiums, the number of firms that offer health insurance to their employees falls by roughly 2.5%. 4 Most of the increase in health insurance premiums is due to the increase in the underlying costs of healthcare. 5,6,7,8 Healthcare costs increase for a variety of reasons, some due to the increased cost of individual services, some due to greater utilization of services, and some due to changes in overall disease prevalence. This commentary examines trends in personal healthcare spending in North Carolina between 1990 and 2000, changes in unit costs and utilization of different services, and the effects of changes in disease prevalence and demographic changes on healthcare spending. The commentary concludes with how these changes impact health insurance premiums and how employers and individuals respond to rising premium costs.

The Thai Currency Crisis: Financing Constraints, High Fixed Costs, and Corporate Governance

We examine the role of financing constraints in depressing output during the Asian financial crisis, using Thai firm-level data. From an output decline of 3.7 percent in our sample in 1998, we find that tightening financing constraints contributed to lowering output by 1.7 percent. We also find evidence of high scale economies or high fixed costs in Thai industries. With high fixed costs, small changes in unit costs or financing costs can lead to large changes in output. We interpret the high fixed costs as evidence of overinvestment prior to the crisis.

The Thai Currency Crisis: Financing Constraints, High Fixed Costs, and Corporate Governance

In this paper, we examined the role of financing constraints in depressing output during the crisis, using Thai firm level data. Out of a total 1998 output decline of 3.7 percent in our sample, we find that tightening financing constraints contributed to lowering output by 1.7 percent. However, most of this output decline was caused not by the deterioration in individual firm characteristics, but by the general tightening of financing constraints, say, by banking sector distress, or the tightening of monetary policy. We also found evidence of high scale economies or high fixed costs in Thai industries. With high scale economies or fixed costs, small changes in unit costs or financing costs can lead to large changes in output. We interpret the high fixed costs as evidence of overinvestment prior to the crisis. The exchange rate depreciation generally raised output. The depreciation lowered the output of non-tradeable firms, as unit costs increased by more than prices, but raised the output of tradeable firms. Output overall increased, since in our sample, tradeable firms outnumber nontradeable firms. Finally, we find that firms with close relationships with banks experienced a larger decline in output. Although the effects of deteriorating firm financial characteristics on financing constraints are moderated for firms with close banking ties, these same firms appear to have very high fixed costs. Thai firms with close banking ties were able to obtain funds cheaply from banks before the crisis; allowing the firms to become intensive in fixed assets, but making them vulnerable to rising unit and financing costs.

Hospital efficiency targets.

Cost-efficiency targets, used to encourage downward pressure on hospital unit costs, have been employed within the UK NHS for many years. There has been considerable speculation that these targets create incentives to reduce beds and increase occupancy rates at the expense of holding spare capacity to accommodate fluctuations in emergency admissions. This research used panel data for the period 1994/1995-1999/2000, supplemented by a series of semi-structured interviews, to explore the strategies Trusts employ to reduce unit costs. No relationship could be found between published targets and changes in unit costs, nor that targets were successful in reducing the dispersion of unit costs over time. Interviews revealed that efficiency gains required of Trusts, usually dictated by the local health economy, often bore no correspondence to the national or regional published targets. Results further indicated that contrary to prior speculation, Trusts divide into two distinct groups, those with high occupancy rates and those with a high proportion of free beds to accommodate emergencies, with Trust characteristics displaying stability over time. A pressing need for future work is the development of measures to encourage efficiency that take account of quality improvement.

Centre-specific or average unit costs in multi-centre studies? Some theory and simulation.

Costing issues are increasingly being addressed in multi-centre studies. In this paper, two methods for collecting costing information are compared within a simulated clinical trial setting. One method estimates average treatment costs by applying unit costs averaged across treatment centres to centre-specific volumes of resource use. The second uses centre-specific information for both the unit costs and the resource volumes, and then averages across centres. Using a pre-specified production relation between the different volumes of resource use, and simulating changes in unit costs, it is shown that these two methods result in statistically different estimates of average treatment costs. This finding holds, regardless of the degree of substitutability between the resource volumes, except when considerable uncertainty surrounds treatment centre responses to relative changes in unit costs. The findings suggest that a more cautious approach should be adopted in the collection, calculation and interpretation of treatment costs in multi-centre studies.

Deregulation, Deposit Markets, and Banks' Costs of Funds

AbstractDeposit interest rate deregulation and financial service innovation have led to dramatic changes in large banks' deposit composition. This paper presentes a statistical cost analysis of changes in unit costs faced by banks under comprehensive financial deregulation. The results of this paper show that the unit cost of retail deposits‐demand and passbook savings deposits‐has increased relative to wholesale deposits‐federal funds, certificates of deposit, and money market time deposits. We show, contrary to conventional wisdom, that changes in unit costs have been caused by processing costs rather than by interest expenses.

MULTILEVEL SYNTHESIS OF STANDARD BUILDING STRUCTURES

An approach for the synthesis of standard building structures consisting of a roof, wall, and foundation subsystems, is presented. The design variables describe the geometry of the structure, subsystem types, and subsystem properties (configuration and dimensions). The constraints are related to functional requirements, relationships between subsystem types, and subsystem variables (side and behavior limitations). The objective function represents the overall cost of the structure. The proposed approach is based on a multilevel formulation and explicit approximations of the optimal cost in terms of the variables. The subsystem variables are selected in the first level; the subsystem type is chosen in the second level; and the geometric variables are optimized in the third level. The three levels are solved iteratively until the final solution is reached. Several means are applied to increase the solution efficiency and numerical examples illustrate the solution procedure. The model developed may be used as a tool for investigating the sensitivity of the optimal design to changes in unit costs, geometric constraints, subsystem type constraints, etc.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE AND POLICY IMPLEMENTATION: THE CASE OF COMMUNITY CARE

This article explores the contention that the conventions of public expenditure accounting conceal, rather than reveal, the real nature and implications of resource trends. A benchmark — a constant level of service output — is established as a basis for examining the relationship between trends in expenditure inputs and service outputs. Changes in unit costs are identified as the major source of deviation between expenditure and output trends. The impact of resource constraint on policy and policy‐implementation is then examined in relation to one, essentially stable, area of policy in the personal social services: community care.The meaning of the term‘policy’ is far from straightforward and community care is best understood as the interaction of relatively independent streams of policy, towards service outputs and resource inputs, extant in both central and local government. Mechanisms by which policy streams could be reconciled are of particular interest and an innovative example — joint finance — is examined in some detail.