Changes In Substrate Stiffness Research Articles

Cyclic stretch enhances neutrophil extracellular trap formation

BackgroundNeutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes circulating in blood, contribute to host defense and play a significant role in chronic inflammatory disorders. They can release their DNA in the form of extracellular traps (NETs), which serve as scaffolds for capturing bacteria and various blood cells. However, uncontrolled formation of NETs (NETosis) can lead to excessive activation of coagulation pathways and thrombosis. Once neutrophils are migrated to infected or injured tissues, they become exposed to mechanical forces from their surrounding environment. However, the impact of transient changes in tissue mechanics due to the natural process of aging, infection, tissue injury, and cancer on neutrophils remains unknown. To address this gap, we explored the interactive effects of changes in substrate stiffness and cyclic stretch on NETosis. Primary neutrophils were cultured on a silicon-based substrate with stiffness levels of 30 and 300 kPa for at least 3 h under static conditions or cyclic stretch levels of 5% and 10%, mirroring the biomechanics of aged and young arteries.ResultsUsing this approach, we found that neutrophils are sensitive to cyclic stretch and that increases in stretch intensity and substrate stiffness enhance nuclei decondensation and histone H3 citrullination (CitH3). In addition, stretch intensity and substrate stiffness promote the response of neutrophils to the NET-inducing agents phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Stretch-induced activation of neutrophils was dependent on calpain activity, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signalling and actin polymerization.ConclusionsIn summary, these results demonstrate that the mechanical forces originating from the surrounding tissue influence NETosis, an important neutrophil function, and thus identify a potential novel therapeutic target.

The modulation of lung cancer cell motility by Calponin 3 is achieved through its ability to sense and respond to changes in substrate stiffness.

The influence of extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness on cell behavior is a well-established phenomenon. Tumor development is associated with the stiffening of the ECM. However, the understanding of the role of biomechanical behavior and mechanotransduction pathways in the oncogenesis of tumor cells remains limited. In this study, we constructed in vitro models using Polydimethylsiloxane substrates to create soft and stiff substrates. We then evaluated the migration of lung cancer cells A549 using video-microscopy and transwell assays. The mechanical properties were assessed through the utilization of atomic force microscopy, Optical Magnetic Twisting Cytometry, and traction force analysis. Additionally, the expression of Calponin 3 (CNN3) was evaluated using reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and immunofluorescence techniques. Our observations indicate that the presence of a stiff substrate enhances A549 motility, as evidenced by increased stiffness and traction force in A549 cells on the stiff substrate. Furthermore, we observed a decrease in CNN3 expression in A549 cells on the stiff substrate. Notably, when CNN3 was overexpressed, it effectively inhibited the migration and invasion of A549 cells on the stiff substrate. The results of our study provide novel perspectives on the mechanisms underlying cancer cell migration in response to substrate mechanical properties.

Extracellular matrix stiffness mediates insulin secretion in pancreatic islets via mechanosensitive Piezo1 channel regulated Ca2+ dynamics

The pancreatic islet is surrounded by ECM that provides both biochemical and mechanical cues to the islet β-cell to regulate cell survival and insulin secretion. Changes in ECM composition and mechanical properties drive β-cell dysfunction in many pancreatic diseases. While several studies have characterized changes in islet insulin secretion with changes in substrate stiffness, little is known about the mechanotransduction signaling driving altered islet function in response to mechanical cues. We hypothesized that increasing matrix stiffness will lead to insulin secretion dysfunction by opening the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo1 and disrupting intracellular Ca2+ dynamics in mouse and human islets. To test our hypothesis, mouse and human cadaveric islets were encapsulated in a biomimetic reverse thermal gel (RTG) scaffold with tailorable stiffness that allows formation of islet focal adhesions with the scaffold and activation of Piezo1 in 3D. Our results indicate that increased scaffold stiffness causes insulin secretion dysfunction mediated by increases in Ca2+ influx and altered Ca2+ dynamics via opening of the mechanosensitive Piezo1 channel. Additionally, inhibition of Piezo1 rescued glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in islets in stiff scaffolds. Overall, our results emphasize the role mechanical properties of the islet microenvironment plays in regulating function. It also supports further investigation into the modulation of Piezo1 channel activity to restore islet function in diseases like type 2 diabetes (T2D) and pancreatic cancer where fibrosis of the peri-islet ECM leads to increased tissue stiffness and islet dysfunction.

426 A Beat Away from Precision Medicine: Characterizing Human Cardiac Fibroblast Responsiveness to Hemodynamic Unloading in Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction

OBJECTIVES/GOALS: Myocardial interstitial fibrosis leads to high hemodynamic load resulting in heart failure (HFrEF). Previous studies show that treatment with a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) does not reduce fibrosis. We hypothesize that human cardiac fibroblasts are highly activated in HFrEF and remain unresponsive to hemodynamic unloading by LVAD. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: Forty human subjects with HFrEF undergoing LVAD implantation were enrolled to provide a portion of myocardium routinely removed during LVAD placement. In addition, 7 biopsies previously collected from transplanted hearts with extended LVAD treatment were also evaluated (LVEX). RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: Quantification of PSR-stained sections reveals a significant increase in collagen content in the HFrEF tissue (CVF = 2.8) compared to control tissues (CVF = 0.9) that remained elevated in LVEX hearts (CVF = 3.1). HCFs from LV biopsies were isolated and grown to confluence. HCFs from HFrEF patients and control HCFs were plated on substrates with stiffnesses reflective of normal myocardium (2kPa) or HFrEF myocardium (8kPa). Cells were collected at 4- and 7-day time points and levels of collagen I and alpha-smooth muscle actin were quantified by western blot analysis. Control HCFs were responsive to changes in substrate stiffness producing more Col I and a-SMA on 8kPa versus 2kPa, HCFs from HFrEF patients were unresponsive to changes in stiffness exhibiting no significant difference in protein production on 2 vs. 8kPa. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Our data suggests that HCFs isolated from the failing myocardium do not respond to changes in mechanical load and might contribute to persistent increases in fibrosis. These findings bring us one step closer to elucidating mechanisms behind fibrosis in HFrEF which could lead to targeted therapies to improve patient outcomes from LVAD support.

Dynamic control of contractile resistance to iPSC-derived micro-heart muscle arrays.

Many types of cardiovascular disease are linked to the mechanical forces placed on the heart. However, our understanding of how mechanical forces exactly affect the cellular biology of the heart remains incomplete. In vitro models based on cardiomyocytes derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-CM) enable researchers to develop medium to high-throughput systems to study cardiac mechanobiology at the cellular level. Previous models have been developed to enable the study of mechanical forces, such as cardiac afterload. However, most of these models require exogenous extracellular matrix (ECM) to form cardiac tissues. Recently, a system was developed to simulate changes in afterload by grafting ECM-free micro-heart muscle arrays to elastomeric substrates of discrete stiffnesses. In the present study, we extended this system by combining the elastomer-grafted tissue arrays with a magnetorheological elastomeric substrate. This system allows iPSC-CM based micro-heart muscle arrays to experience dynamic changes in contractile resistance to mimic dynamically altered afterload. Acute changes in substrate stiffness led to acute changes in the calcium dynamics and contractile forces, illustrating the system's ability to dynamically elicit changes in tissue mechanics by dynamically changing contractile resistance.

Abstract P2111: Characterizing Human Cardiac Fibroblast Responsiveness To Hemodynamic Unloading In Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction

Background: Myocardial interstitial fibrosis is a common pathology in cardiomyopathies leading to ventricular dilation and increased hemodynamic load that result in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Previous research has shown that HFrEF patients treated with a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) undergo hemodynamic unloading resulting in at least partial cardiomyocyte recovery. However, evidence supports that these patients do not experience a regression of fibrosis and demonstrate, in some cases, a worsening of fibrosis after LVAD treatment. Purpose: We hypothesize that human cardiac fibroblasts (HCFs) are constitutively activated in HFrEF myocardium but remain unresponsive to hemodynamic unloading with LVAD placement. Methods and Results: Forty human subjects with HFrEF undergoing LVAD implantation were enrolled to provide a portion of myocardium routinely removed during LVAD placement. In addition, 7 biopsies previously collected from transplanted hearts with extended LVAD treatment were also evaluated (LVEX). Quantification of PSR stained sections revealed a significant increase in collagen content in the HFrEF tissue (Collagen volume fraction % (CVF) = 2.8±0.2) in comparison to control tissues (CVF = 0.9±0.2) that remained elevated in LVEX hearts (CVF = 3.1±0.3). HCFs derived from biopsies received at LVAD placement were isolated and grown to confluence. HCFs from HFrEF patients and control HCFs from healthy donors were then plated on substrates with mechanical stiffnesses reflective of either normal myocardium (2kPa) or failing myocardium (8kPa). Cells were collected at 4- and 7-day timepoints and levels of collagen I (Col I) and alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) were quantified through western blot analysis with β-actin as a loading control. Whereas control HCFs were responsive to changes in substrate stiffness producing more Col I and α-SMA on 8kPa versus 2kPa, HCFs from HFrEF patients were unresponsive to changes in stiffness exhibiting no significant difference in production on 2 vs. 8kPa. Conclusion: These data suggest that HCFs isolated from the failing myocardium do not respond to changes in mechanical load and hence, might contribute to persistent increases in fibrosis in failing and unloaded hearts.

Aberrant chromatin reorganization in cells from diseased fibrous connective tissue in response to altered chemomechanical cues.

Changes in the micro-environment of fibrous connective tissue can lead to alterations in the phenotypes of tissue-resident cells, yet the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, by visualizing the dynamics of histone spatial reorganization in tenocytes and mesenchymal stromal cells from fibrous tissue of human donors via super-resolution microscopy, we show that physiological and pathological chemomechanical cues can directly regulate the spatial nanoscale organization and density of chromatin in these tissue-resident cell populations. Specifically, changes in substrate stiffness, altered oxygen tension and the presence of inflammatory signals drive chromatin relocalization and compaction into the nuclear boundary, mediated by the activity of the histone methyltransferase EZH2 and an intact cytoskeleton. In healthy cells, chemomechanically triggered changes in the spatial organization and density of chromatin are reversible and can be attenuated by dynamically stiffening the substrate. In diseased human cells, however, the link between mechanical or chemical inputs and chromatin remodelling is abrogated. Our findings suggest that aberrant chromatin organization in fibrous connective tissue may be a hallmark of disease progression that could be leveraged for therapeutic intervention.

Effect of substrate stiffness on the mechanical properties of cervical cancer cells

BackgroundCervical cancer microenvironment is involved in the regulation of the behavior, morphology, and mechanical properties of the cervical cancer cells. Integrins expressed on the cell membrane combine with the factors of the microenvironment to determine cervical cancer cells’ properties. The mechanical properties of integrin-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions are important for the mechanotransduction of cervical cancer cells. However, the quantified study on the adhesion force and binding probabilities between collagen and integrins on cervical cancer cells grown on different stiffness substrates have not been reported. MethodsPolyacrylamide (PA) gel was used as substrate to mimic the mechanical microenvironment of cancer cells. ImageJ software was used to measure the perimeter and area of the cells. SiHa cells were stained with FITC phalloidine to observe the cytoskeleton. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to measure the cell mechanical properties. ResultThe perimeters of SiHa cells grown on different stiffness substrates were 63.4 ± 1.3, 102.8 ± 4.0, and 152.6 ± 4.1 μm, for soft, intermediate, and stiff substrates, respectively. These areas were 277.2 ± 13.3, 428.9 ± 26.0, and 1166.0 ± 63.2 μm2, for soft, intermediate, and stiff substrates, respectively. The Young's modulus of SiHa cells grown on stiff substrates (3.0 ± 0.02 kPa) was higher compared with those on soft substrates (0.6 ± 0.01 kPa) or intermediate substrates (bimodal distribution, 1.36 and 1.67 kPa). The adhesion force between the functionalized probe and SiHa cells grown on glass (55.65 ± 0.78 pN) was significantly greater than that on stiff (47.03 ± 0.85 pN), intermediate (34.07 ± 0.58 pN) and soft (27.94 ± 0.47 pN) substrates. The binding probabilities of the collagen-integrin of the four rigid substrates were significantly differed. ConclusionThe changes in substrate stiffness can obviously regulate SiHa cells' mechanical properties, such as the Young's modulus. The adhesion force and binding probabilities of SiHa cells both increased with increasing substrate strength.

Human Adventitial Fibroblast Phenotype Depends on the Progression of Changes in Substrate Stiffness.

Adventitial fibroblasts (AFs) are major contributors to vascular remodeling and maladaptive cascades associated with arterial disease, where AFs both contribute to and respond to alterations in their surrounding matrix. The relationships between matrix modulus and human aortic AF (AoAF) function are investigated using poly(ethylene glycol)-based hydrogels designed with matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-sensitive and integrin-binding peptides. Initial equilibrium shear storage moduli for the substrates examined are 0.33, 1.42, and 2.90 kPa; after 42 days of culture, all hydrogels exhibit similar storage moduli (0.3-0.7 kPa) regardless of initial modulus, with encapsulated AoAFs spreading and proliferating. In 10 and 7.5 wt% hydrogels, modulus decreases monotonically throughout culture; however, in 5 wt% hydrogels, modulus increases after an initial 7 days of culture, accompanied by an increase in myofibroblast transdifferentiation and expression of collagen I and III through day 28. Thereafter, significant reductions in both collagens occur, with increased MMP-9 and decreased tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1/-2 production. Releasing cytoskeletal tension or inhibiting cellular protein secretion in 5 wt% hydrogels block the stiffening of the polymer matrix. Results indicate that encapsulated AoAFs initiate cell-mediated matrix remodeling and demonstrate the utility of dynamic 3D systems to elucidate the complex interactions between cell behavior and substrate properties.

Disrupted mechanobiology links the molecular and cellular phenotypes in familial dilated cardiomyopathy

Familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a leading cause of sudden cardiac death and a major indicator for heart transplant. The disease is frequently caused by mutations of sarcomeric proteins; however, it is not well understood how these molecular mutations lead to alterations in cellular organization and contractility. To address this critical gap in our knowledge, we studied the molecular and cellular consequences of a DCM mutation in troponin-T, ΔK210. We determined the molecular mechanism of ΔK210 and used computational modeling to predict that the mutation should reduce the force per sarcomere. In mutant cardiomyocytes, we found that ΔK210 not only reduces contractility but also causes cellular hypertrophy and impairs cardiomyocytes' ability to adapt to changes in substrate stiffness (e.g., heart tissue fibrosis that occurs with aging and disease). These results help link the molecular and cellular phenotypes and implicate alterations in mechanosensing as an important factor in the development of DCM.

Abstract 904: Disrupted Mechanobiology Links the Molecular and Cellular Phenotypes in Familial Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a leading cause of sudden cardiac death and a major indicator for heart transplant. The disease is frequently caused by mutations of sarcomeric proteins; however, one of the outstanding challenges in the field has been connecting mutation-induced changes in molecular function with the phenotype seen in cardiomyocytes. Many of the DCM mutation-induced changes in contractility at the molecular scale are subtle, begging the question of what other factors could link molecular-scale changes in contractile proteins with the cellular phenotype. We hypothesized that disease-causing mutations of sarcomeric proteins would likely affect not only contraction, but also how cardiomyocytes sense and respond to changes in their mechanical environment associated with aging and disease. To test this hypothesis, we studied the molecular and cellular consequences of a DCM mutation in troponin-T, deltaK210. We determined the molecular mechanism of deltaK210 using biochemical and biophysical tools, and then we used computational modeling to predict that the mutation should reduce the force per sarcomere in cells. In mutant human stem cell derived cardiomyocytes, we found that deltaK210 not only reduces contractility, but also causes cellular hypertrophy and impairs cardiomyocytes’ ability to adapt to changes in substrate stiffness (e.g., heart tissue fibrosis that occurs with aging and disease). These results link the molecular and cellular phenotypes and implicate impaired mechanosensing as an under-appreciated mechanism in the pathogenesis and progression of dilated cardiomyopathies. These results also have important implications for our understanding of multiple heart diseases and the design of precision therapeutics.

Differential cellular contractility as a mechanism for stiffness sensing

The ability of cells to sense and respond to the mechanical properties of their environments is fundamental to a range of cellular behaviours, with substrate stiffness increasingly being found to be a key signalling factor. Although active contractility of the cytoskeleton is clearly necessary for stiffness sensing in cells, the physical mechanisms connecting contractility with mechanosensing and molecular conformational change are not well understood. Here we present a contractility-driven mechanism for linking changes in substrate stiffness with internal conformational changes. Cellular contractility is often assumed to imply an associated compressive strain. We show, however, that where the contractility is non-uniform, localized areas of internal stretch can be generated as stiffer substrates are encountered. This suggests a physical mechanism for the stretch-activation of mechanotransductive molecules on stiffer substrates. Importantly, the areas of internal stretch occur deep within the cell and not near the cellular perimeter, which region is more traditionally associated with stiffness sensing through e.g. focal adhesions. This supports recent experimental results on whole-cell mechanically-driven mechanotransduction. Considering cellular shape we show that aspect ratio acts as an additional control parameter, so that the onset of positive strain moves to higher stiffness values in elliptical cells.

Epithelial cells exert differential traction stress in response to substrate stiffness

Epithelial wound healing is essential for maintaining the function and clarity of the cornea. Successful repair after injury involves the coordinated movements of cell sheets over the wounded region. While collective migration has been the focus of studies, the effects that environmental changes have on this form of movement are poorly understood. To examine the role of substrate compliancy on multi-layered epithelial sheet migration, we performed traction force and confocal microscopy to determine differences in traction forces and to examine focal adhesions on synthetic and biological substrates. The leading edges of corneal epithelial sheets undergo retraction or contraction prior to migration, and alterations in the sheet's stiffness are affected by the amount of force exerted by cells at the leading edge. On substrates of 30 kPa, cells exhibited greater and more rapid movement than on substrates of 8 kPa, which are similar to that of the corneal basement membrane. Vinculin and its phosphorylated residue Y1065 were prominent along the basal surface of migrating cells, while Y822 was prominent between neighboring cells along the leading edge. Vinculin localization was diffuse on a substrate where the basement membrane was removed. Furthermore, when cells were cultured on fibronectin-coated acrylamide substrates of 8 and 50 kPa and then wounded, there was an injury-induced phosphorylation of Y1065 and substrate dependent changes in the number and size of vinculin containing focal adhesions. These results demonstrate that changes in substrate stiffness affected traction forces and vinculin dynamics, which potentially could contribute to the delayed healing response associated with certain corneal pathologies.

Imaging Chromosome Territory and Gene Loci Positions in Cells Grown on Soft Matrices.

It is well established that the genome is non-randomly organized in the interphase nucleus with gene rich chromosome territories toward the nuclear interior, while gene poor chromosome territories are proximal to the nuclear periphery. In vivo tissue stiffness and architecture modulates cell type-specific genome organization and gene expression programs. However, the impact of external mechanical forces on the non-random organization of the genome is not completely understood. Here we describe a modified protocol for visualizing chromosome territories and gene loci positions in cells exposed to reduced matrix stiffness by employing soft polyacrylamide matrices. 3-Dimensional Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (3D-FISH) protocol followed by image analyses performed on cells exposed to extracellular matrices of varying stiffness properties, enables the determination of the dynamics of chromosome territories as well as gene loci in the interphase nucleus. This will be useful in understanding how chromosome territories respond to changes in substrate stiffness and the potential correlation between the repositioning of chromosome territories and their respective transcriptional profiles.

Crk adaptor proteins mediate actin-dependent T cell migration and mechanosensing induced by the integrin LFA-1.

T cell entry into inflamed tissue involves firm adhesion, spreading, and migration of the T cells across endothelial barriers. These events depend on "outside-in" signals through which engaged integrins direct cytoskeletal reorganization. We investigated the molecular events that mediate this process and found that T cells from mice lacking expression of the adaptor protein Crk exhibited defects in phenotypes induced by the integrin lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1), namely, actin polymerization, leading edge formation, and two-dimensional cell migration. Crk protein was an essential mediator of LFA-1 signaling-induced phosphorylation of the E3 ubiquitin ligase c-Cbl and its subsequent interaction with the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) subunit p85, thus promoting PI3K activity and cytoskeletal remodeling. In addition, we found that Crk proteins were required for T cells to respond to changes in substrate stiffness, as measured by alterations in cell spreading and differential phosphorylation of the force-sensitive protein CasL. These findings identify Crk proteins as key intermediates coupling LFA-1 signals to actin remodeling and provide mechanistic insights into how T cells sense and respond to substrate stiffness.

Osteogenesis-Related Behavior of MC3T3-E1 Cells on Substrates with Tunable Stiffness.

Osteogenic differentiation of cells has considerable clinical significance in bone defect treatment, and cell behavior is linked to extracellular matrix stiffness. This study aimed to determine how matrix stiffness affects cell morphology and subsequently regulates the osteogenic phenotype of osteogenesis precursor cells. Four PDMS substrates were prepared with stiffness corresponding to the elastic modulus ranging from 0.6 MPa to 2.7 MPa by altering the Sylgard 527 and Sylgard 184 concentrations. MC3T3-E1 cells were cultured on the matrices. Cell morphology, vinculin expression, and key osteogenic markers, Col I, OCN, OPN, and calcium nodule, were examined. The activity and expression level of Yes-associated protein (YAP) were evaluated. Results showed that cell spreading exhibited no correlation with the stiffness of matrix designed in this paper, but substratum stiffness did modulate MC3T3-E1 osteogenic differentiation. Col I, OPN, and OCN proteins were significantly increased in cells cultured on soft matrices compared with stiff matrices. Additionally, cells cultured on the 1:3 ratio matrices had more nodules than those on other matrices. Accordingly, cells on substrates with low stiffness showed enhanced expression of the osteogenic markers. Meanwhile, YAP expression was downregulated on soft substrates although the subcellular location was not affected. Our results provide evidence that matrix stiffness (elastic modulus ranging from 0.6 MPa to 2.7 MPa) affects the osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1, but it is not that “the stiffer, the better” as showed in some of the previous studies. The optimal substrate stiffness may exist to promote osteoblast differentiation. Cell differentiation triggered by the changes in substrate stiffness may be independent of the YAP signal. This study has important implications for biomaterial design and stem cell-based tissue engineering.

Unique behavior of dermal cells from regenerative mammal, the African Spiny Mouse, in response to substrate stiffness

The African Spiny Mouse (Acomys spp.) is a unique outbred mammal capable of full, scar-free skin regeneration. In vivo, we have observed rapid reepithelialization and deposition of normal dermis in Acomys after wounding. Acomys skin also has a lower modulus and lower elastic energy storage than normal lab mice, Mus musculus. To see if the different in vivo mechanical microenvironments retained an effect on dermal cells and contributed to regenerative behavior, we examined isolated keratinocytes in response to physical wounding and fibroblasts in response to varying substrate stiffness. Classic mechanobiology paradigms suggest stiffer substrates will promote myofibroblast activation, but we do not see this in Acomys dermal fibroblasts (DFs). Though Mus DFs increase organization of α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA)-positive stress fibers as substrate stiffness increases, Acomys DFs assemble very few αSMA-positive stress fibers upon changes in substrate stiffness. Acomys DFs generate lower traction forces than Mus DFs on pliable surfaces, and Acomys DFs produce and modify matrix proteins differently than Mus in 2D and 3D culture systems. In contrast to Acomys DFs “relaxed” behavior, we found that freshly isolated Acomys keratinocytes retain the ability to close wounds faster than Mus in an in vitro scratch assay. Taken together, these preliminary observations suggest that Acomys dermal cells retain unique biophysical properties in vitro that may reflect their altered in vivo mechanical microenvironment and may promote scar-free wound healing.

Determining mechanical features of modulated epithelial monolayers using subnuclear particle tracking.

Force generation within cells, mediated by motor proteins along cytoskeletal networks, maintains the function of multicellular structures during homeostasis and when generating collective forces. Here, we describe the use of chromatin dynamics to detect cellular force propagation [a technique termed SINK (sensors from intranuclear kinetics)] and investigate the force response of cells to disruption of the monolayer and changes in substrate stiffness. We find that chromatin dynamics change in a substrate stiffness-dependent manner within epithelial monolayers. We also investigate point defects within monolayers to map the impact on the strain field of a heterogeneous monolayer. We find that cell monolayers behave as a colloidal assembly rather than as a continuum since the data fit an exponential decay; the lateral characteristic length of recovery from the mechanical defect is ∼50 µm for cells with a 10 µm spacing. At distances greater than this characteristic length, cells behave similarly to those in a fully intact monolayer. This work demonstrates the power of SINK to investigate diseases including cancer and atherosclerosis that result from single cells or heterogeneities in monolayers.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Roles of Cell‐Cell Junction and Substrate Stiffness in Determining 3D Forces of Endothelial Cells

Mechanical forces play an important role in regulating structure and functions of cells, including motility, proliferation, and survival. The integrity of cell‐cell junction is crucial in the physiological behavior of endothelial cells. Thus, it is essential to understand the modulation of endothelial cells by their micro‐environment such as substrate stiffness, confluency, and cell‐cell junction.We have developed three‐dimensional traction force microscopy (3D‐TFM) and intracellular force microscopy (3D‐IFM) to measure cell‐ECM, cell‐cell, and intracellular stresses of live cells in three dimensions at the subcellular level. These novel methods have been applied in order to investigate the mechanical responses of endothelial cells to changes in substrate stiffness, cell confluency, and cell‐cell junction. The results indicate that endothelial cells exhibit differences in the magnitude and spatial distribution of mechanical behaviors (traction and intracellular stress) and morphological features (area and aspect ratio) in response to substrate stiffness (1.5 kPa and 10b kPa hydrogel), cell confluency (existence of cell‐cell junction), and junction‐affecting drugs (thrombin and angiopoietin).We have shown that biophysical and biochemical environments are important in the control of endothelial cell structure and function. Studying how the forces are regulated spatially and temporally at the subcellular level in response to changes of cellular microenvironment can lead to further understanding of the physiology of endothelial cells and pathogenesis of vascular diseases.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Tissue stiffening coordinates morphogenesis by triggering collective cell migration in vivo.

Collective cell migration (CCM) is essential for morphogenesis, tissue remodelling, and cancer invasion1,2. In vivo, groups of cells move in an orchestrated way through tissues. This movement requires forces and involves mechanical as well as molecular interactions between cells and their environment. While the role of molecular signals in CCM is comparatively well understood1,2, how tissue mechanics influence CCM in vivo remains unknown. Here we investigated the importance of mechanical cues in the collective migration of the Xenopus laevis neural crest cells, an embryonic cell population whose migratory behaviour has been likened to cancer invasion3. We found that, during morphogenesis, the head mesoderm underlying the cephalic neural crest stiffens. This stiffening initiated an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in neural crest cells and triggered their collective migration. To detect changes in their mechanical environment, neural crest use integrin/vinculin/talin-mediated mechanosensing. By performing mechanical and molecular manipulations, we showed that mesoderm stiffening is necessary and sufficient to trigger neural crest migration. Finally, we demonstrated that convergent extension of the mesoderm, which starts during gastrulation, leads to increased mesoderm stiffness by increasing the cell density underneath the neural crest. These results unveil a novel role for mesodermal convergent extension as a mechanical coordinator of morphogenesis, and thus reveal a new link between two apparently unconnected processes, gastrulation and neural crest migration, via changes in tissue mechanics. Overall, we provide the first demonstration that changes in substrate stiffness can trigger CCM by promoting EMT in vivo. More broadly, our results raise the exciting idea that tissue mechanics combines with molecular effectors to coordinate morphogenesis4.