Changes In Self-control Research Articles

How maternal and paternal parenting behaviors predict developmental changes in self-control and deviance during early adolescence

PurposeThe present study tested the pattern of developmental changes in self-control during early adolescence, and whether maternal and paternal closeness, support, monitoring, and disciplinary inconsistency were associated with developmental changes in deviance, indirectly through developmental changes in self-control. MethodsFive assessments part of the Brno Longitudinal Study of Youth on 582 early adolescents (58.4% female; Mage = 12.34 years, SD = 0.89 at baseline) were used for the study. A latent growth model tested the growth of self-control over two years in early adolescence. Associations between parenting and developmental changes in self-control as well as deviance were tested using structural equation modeling with latent constructs. ResultsSelf-control declined over time; individuals varied both in initial levels and rates of change. Full mediation through developmental changes in self-control were found; more specifically, more maternal monitoring at age 12 was associated with increases in self-control at age 13, which, in turn, was associated with less deviance at age 14. Results also provided evidence of direct effects, where more maternal closeness at age 12 was associated with less deviance at age 14. ConclusionsSelf-control decreased during early adolescence, thus supporting continued malleability. Both maternal closeness and monitoring were associated with less deviance, where the effect of monitoring was mediated through self-control.

Self-control training supplementing inpatient multidisciplinary obesity treatment in children and adolescents

Research points to self-control as a possible mechanism for facilitating health behaviour and weight loss. The dual pathway model underpins the role of strong bottom-up reactivity towards food and weak top-down executive functions in obesity. Despite flourishing lab studies on attention bias modification or inhibition trainings, relatively few focused on training both processes to improve self-control in children and adolescents in inpatient multidisciplinary obesity treatment (MOT).Being part of the WELCOME project, this study investigated the effectiveness of Brain Fitness training (using the Dot Probe and Go/No-Go) as an adjunct to inpatient MOT in 131 Belgian children and adolescents. Changes in self-control (performance-based inhibitory control and attention bias as well as self-reported eating behaviour) in the experimental group were compared to sham training. Multiple Imputation was used to handle missing data.Inhibitory control and external eating improved over time (pre/post/follow-up), but we found no evidence for a significant interaction between time and condition. Future research should pay more attention to the role of individual variability in baseline self-control, sham training, and ecological validity of self-control training to improve real-life health behaviour and treatment perspectives for children and adolescents with weight problems.

Self-control, peers, and adolescent substance use: an international analysis

Background Adolescent substance use continues to be a global concern. Research has shown that two consistent predictors of this behavior are self-control and peer substance use. The objective of this study was to determine if these two variables interact to affect the frequency of substance use among young people. Methods The analysis utilized three years of data from the Second International Self-Report Delinquency study (2005-2007) (ISRD-2), which gathered information from youth, ages 12-17, residing in 30 nations (n = 72,206). Illicit substance use included cannabis, ecstasy, stimulants, and other substances. A zero-inflated negative binomial model that adjusts for selection effects was estimated to predict the frequency of substance use. Results The results showed that adolescents with low self-control who associated with substance using peers tended to be the most frequent substance users. Yet, youth with higher levels of selfcontrol were likely to report no or low frequency use regardless of the number of their friends who used illicit substances. Conclusions Self-control affects substance use among adolescents and can attenuate the influence of peer substance use. Research using longitudinal data is needed to disentangle changes in self-control, peer substance use, and one’s own substance use.

Mechanisms of Influence on Youth Substance Use for a Social-Emotional and Character Development Program: A Theory-Based Approach

Background: The Theory of Triadic Influence (TTI) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding adolescent substance use. Objectives: We examined mechanisms by which a TTI-guided social-emotional and character development program, Positive Action (PA), influences adolescent substance use. Study data come from the PA-Chicago, longitudinal matched-pairs cluster-randomized control trial. A diverse, dynamic cohort of approximately 1,200 students from 14 low-performing schools were assessed at eight points of time, between grades 3-8, across a six-year period. Students completed scales related to substance use, self-control, deviant peer affiliation, and school attachment, adapted from the Risk Behavior Survey, Social-Emotional and Character Development Scale, Conventional Friends Scale, and People in My Life Scale. After testing the overall effect of PA on substance use, we used latent growth modeling to assess whether effects on each outcome were mediated by longitudinal changes in three composite measures aligning with the TTIs three streams. Results: Students in PA schools reported fewer experiences with drinking, getting drunk, and overall substance use. In the multiple mediator models, significant indirect effects of PA on substance use via changes in self-control were evident. Conclusions/Importance: Findings are consistent with theory and past research suggesting the influence of self-control on youth substance use. Future studies should include implementation in different settings and additional theory-based measures. Trial RegistrationThis trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01025674.

Self-control in adolescence predicts forgivingness in middle adulthood.

This 33-year study examined associations between self-control development in adolescence and forgivingness, i.e., the dispositional tendency to forgive others, in middle adulthood. Participants were 1350 adults aged 45 years (50.6% female). Self-control was measured yearly from age 12 to 16, while forgivingness was measured at age 45. Results indicated significant individual differences in level and change of self-control across the adolescent years and an average mean-level increase. Individual differences in level and change in self-control were independently associated with forgivingness in middle adulthood. Individuals who either entered adolescence with higher self-control, and/or increased in self-control during the adolescent years, reported higher scores in forgivingness at age 45 compared to peers. This pattern held even after controlling for gender, socioeconomic status (SES), and conduct problems in adolescence. The current findings demonstrate that developmental processes in adolescence are important for individual differences in the dispositional tendency to forgive others in adulthood.

The special role of middle childhood in self‐control development: Longitudinal and genetic evidence

Despite the importance of self‐control for well‐being and adjustment, its development from early childhood to early adolescence has been relatively understudied. We addressed the development of mother‐reported self‐control in what is likely the largest and longest longitudinal twin study of the topic to this day (N = 1889 individual children with data from at least one of five waves: ages 3, 5, 6.5, 8–9 and 11 years). We examined rank‐order change in self‐control from early childhood to early adolescence, genetic and environmental contributions to variance in the trait and differential developmental trajectories. The relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors to change and stability was also examined. Results point at middle childhood as a period of potential transition and change. During this period the rank‐order stability of self‐control increases, heritability rates substantially rise, and a cross‐over occurs in two of the self‐control trajectories. Nonadditive genetic effects contribute to both stability and change in self‐control while the nonshared environment contributes mostly to change, with no effect for the shared environment. Our findings suggest that new genetic factors, that emerge around age 6.5 and whose effect on self‐control is carried on along development, may partially account for changes in self‐control around late middle childhood, and explain the growing stability in the trait approaching early adolescence. We discuss the implications of the special role of middle childhood for self‐control development.

A novel smoking-specific self-control task: An initial study of feasibility, acceptability, and changes in self-control and cigarette smoking behaviors among adults using cigarettes.

Objective: Self-control is a key factor in quitting cigarettes and practicing general self-control tasks may strengthen self-control. This study examined the feasibility and acceptability of a novel smoking-related self-control task. Method: Seventy-five adults with current cigarette smoking (Mage = 44.8, 74.7% male, 63.5% Black, 74.3% non-Latinx) were randomly assigned to practice a smoking-specific self-control task (Delay Smoking Task, n = 39) or a general self-control task (Posture Task, n = 36) for 1 week. Assessments included cigarettes per day (CPD), motivation to quit smoking, self-control, and task acceptability. Results: Most participants completed both appointments with no difference between task groups (p = .69). The Delay Smoking Task group rated the task as more difficult (p = .04) and more helpful for quitting smoking (p = .005) than did the Posture Task group. Self-control task groups did not differ in task effort (p = .66), task success (p = .14), or self-control used to practice the task (p = .13). Both task groups reported increased quit desire, expected quit success, quit confidence, and quit motivation (p < .05; partial η²s = 0.108-0.333). The time by task group interaction approached significance for expected quit success (p = .06; partial η² = .053), with the Delay Smoking Task group showing greater increases than the Posture Task group. Over the week, smoking decreased an average of 1.0 CPD with no difference between groups (p = .72; partial η² = 0.165). Conclusions: Practicing self-control was associated with increases in motivation to quit, confidence in quitting, and expected success at quitting smoking with similar changes for those practicing a smoking-specific versus a general self-control task. Self-control tasks may be useful for increasing motivation to quit cigarettes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Self-control, Mental Health Problems, and Family Functioning in Adolescence and Young Adulthood: Between-person Differences and Within-person Effects

Adolescents’ self-control develops in the context of mental health and family functioning, but it is unclear how the interplay of self-control, mental health, and family functioning unfolds across time within individuals. Separating within-person from between-person effects, random-intercept cross-lagged panel models were applied to adolescents (from ages 11 to 26) from a Dutch cohort (n = 2228, 51% female). Adolescents with low self-control were likely to have mental health problems and poorly functioning families. Although within-person changes in the study variables were not meaningfully associated in a reciprocal manner, changes in self-control and mental health were concurrently associated. This suggests that besides stable connections between self-control, mental health, and family functioning in adolescence and young adulthood, changes in self-control and mental health are developmentally linked as well.

Mixed Results on the Efficacy of the CharacterMe Smartphone App to Improve Self-Control, Patience, and Emotional Regulation Competencies in Adolescents.

Unprecedented levels of access to adolescents' time and attention provide opportunities to convert traditional character and socioemotional competencies interventions into behavioral intervention technologies. However, these new tools must be evaluated rather than assuming previously validated activities will be efficacious when converted to a mobile platform. Thus, we sought to design and provide initial data on the effectiveness of the CharacterMe smartphone app to build self-control and patience, which are built on underlying social-emotional regulation competencies, in a sample of 618 adolescents (Mage = 16.07, Female = 56.6%). We also sought to examine whether framing the app activities as having a transcendent (spiritual connection or moral/prosocial) rather than instrumental purpose would increase engagement and change in self-control, patience, and emotion regulation. Finally, we tested the impact of framing activities as building strengths vs. fixing weaknesses. Results highlight the difficulty of translating psychological interventions to behavioral intervention technologies. Overall, the CharacterMe smartphone app was unsuccessful in increasing self-control, patience, or emotion regulation in adolescents, with analyses showing no significant mean changes over time. Framing conditions and user engagement were largely not significant predictors of change in self-control, patience, and emotion regulation.

The development of cooperation and self-control in middle childhood: Associations with earlier maternal and paternal parenting.

Developmental theories and previous research have emphasized the significance of cooperation and self-control in middle childhood. The present study extends previous research by examining (a) the growth of cooperation and self-control as well as the relations between them in middle childhood (third to sixth grade) and (b) the extent to which mothers' and fathers' parenting during early childhood (54 months and first grade) was associated with children's cooperation and self-control. The sample included 705 children (51% female, 86% White) and their mothers, fathers, and teachers in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD). Children, on average, exhibited increases in self-control but not cooperation from third to sixth grade though the increases were smaller for children who had higher self-control or cooperation at third grade. Children who exhibited higher self-control at third grade tended to exhibit higher cooperation at third grade; similar positive associations emerged for the changes in self-control and cooperation over time. In addition, if a child exhibited higher self-control at one time point relative to their typical average level, they tended to also exhibit higher cooperation at the same time point relative to their typical average level. However, these relative deviations within person were not associated over time. Lastly, maternal and paternal sensitive and stimulating parenting in early childhood was positively associated with children's cooperation and self-control in middle childhood. Overall, our findings shed light on the growth of and the relations between cooperation and self-control in middle childhood and highlight the role of maternal and paternal parenting in early childhood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Predictors of initial status and change in self-control during the college transition

Although self-control tends to increase through late adolescence, there are individual differences in patterns of growth. Latent growth modeling was used to investigate change in self-control across students’ first year of college (N = 569, Mage = 18.03; 70.3% female; 89.6% White), and whether attachment to parents predicted this change when controlling for personality and demographic variables. Self-control decreased linearly across five assessments, with significant heterogeneity in intercepts and slopes. Personality was associated with initial self-control, and greater avoidant attachment to mothers and openness to experience predicted greater declines. Overall, self-control changes across late adolescence, and attachment and personality explain individual differences in that change, indicating potential intervention targets during emerging adulthood.

Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on addictive behavior and brain glucose metabolism in problematic online gamers.

Background and aimsSome online gamers may encounter difficulties in controlling their gaming behavior. Previous studies have demonstrated beneficial effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on various kinds of addiction. This study investigated the effects of tDCS on addictive behavior and regional cerebral metabolic rate of glucose (rCMRglu) in problematic online gamers.MethodsProblematic online gamers were randomized and received 12 sessions of either active (n = 13) or sham tDCS (n = 13) to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex over 4 weeks (anode F3/cathode F4, 2 mA for 30 min, 3 sessions per week). Participants underwent brain 18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans and completed questionnaires including the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS), and Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System scales (BIS/BAS) at the baseline and 4-week follow-up.ResultsSignificant decreases in time spent on gaming (P = 0.005), BIS (P = 0.03), BAS-fun seeking (P = 0.04), and BAS-reward responsiveness (P = 0.01), and increases in BSCS (P = 0.03) were found in the active tDCS group, while decreases in IAT were shown in both groups (P < 0.001). Group-by-time interaction effects were not significant for these measures. Increases in BSCS scores were correlated with decreases in IAT scores in the active group (β = −0.85, P < 0.001). rCMRglu in the left putamen, pallidum, and insula was increased in the active group compared to the sham group (P for interaction < 0.001).Discussion and conclusionstDCS may be beneficial for problematic online gaming potentially through changes in self-control, motivation, and striatal/insular metabolism. Further larger studies with longer follow-up period are warranted to confirm our findings.

Morning resolutions, evening disillusions: Theories of willpower affect how health behaviours change across the day

People may be more or less vulnerable to changes in self-control across the day, depending on whether they believe willpower is more or less limited. Limited willpower beliefs might be associated with steeper decreases in self-control across the day, which may result in less goal-consistent behaviour by the evening. Community members with health goals (Sample 1; N = 160; 1814 observations) and students (Sample 2; N = 162; 10,581 observations) completed five surveys per day for one to three weeks, reporting on their recent physical activity, snacking, subjective state, and health intentions. In both samples, more limited willpower beliefs were associated with less low- and moderate-intensity physical activity, particularly later in the day. Limited willpower beliefs were also associated with more snacking in the evenings (Sample 1) or overall (Sample 2). These behavioural patterns were mediated by differential changes in self-efficacy and intentions across the course of the day (in Sample 1), and the above patterns of low- and moderate-physical intensity held after controlling for related individual differences, including trait self-control and chronotype (in Sample 2). Overall, more limited willpower theories were associated with decreasing goal-consistent behaviour as the day progressed, alongside decreasing self-efficacy and weakening health-goal intentions.

Effects of a teen resident camp leadership program on changes in dimensions of self-control and interpersonal functioning, and their theory-based relationships

Camp leadership programs have the potential of improving important psychosocial factors in teens who might eventually become counselors. Accepted behavioral theory might increase understandings of those changes so program training architectures can be improved. As part of larger-scale longitudinal research, participants (N = 129; 64 % female, Mage = 14.6 years, SD = 0.6) were selected by senior camp administrators for a structured leadership training program that required in-person conferences, viewing training videos every 2 weeks, obtaining ongoing mentoring from senior camp staff, and attending several weeks of summer camp where further training was provided. Validated surveys of proposed dimensions of self-control and interpersonal functioning were administered twice over 6 months to assess training program-associated changes. There were significant improvements in total self-control, self-control specifically related to coping, and family-related functioning. Although no demographic factor was associated with score change, baseline score was a significant predictor across measures. After controlling for baseline scores, stepwise multiple regression analyses indicated that higher self-control scores (i.e., planful behavior, coping efficacy, affective thought management) significantly predicted improvements in general, family, and peer-related functioning. Theory-based relationships between changes in self-control and interpersonal functioning enabled the identification of training program areas that might be targeted for improvement.

Effect of a Combined Exercise and Dietary Intervention on Self-Control in Obese Adolescents.

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to determine whether a combined exercise and dietary intervention improved cognitive and physical self-control and whether pre-to-post interventional changes in self-control were mediated by changes in body mass index (BMI) and maximal grip strength (MGS), in a sample of obese adolescents.MethodsForty-four obese adolescents were randomly assigned to a combined exercise and dietary program or to a waitlist control group; the data from 36 participants (n = 18 for each group) were analyzed. The combined exercise and dietary program was performed over 6 weeks and was supervised by qualified trainers in a closed boot camp. The exercise consisted primarily of typical aerobic training, sports, outdoor training, yoga, and resistance training. Participants were placed on moderate dietary restriction according to individual target body weight (30 kcal/kg × target weight). The primary outcomes of this study were metrics based on cognitive and physical self-control, assessed by the Stroop task and a handgrip task, respectively. Secondary outcomes included BMI and MGS.ResultsThe combined exercise and dietary intervention significantly improved both cognitive and physical self-control. Similar positive effects were also found for reduced BMI and enhanced MGS. Correlation analyses showed that the reduced BMI and enhanced MGS were significantly closely associated with improved cognitive and physical self-control. The mediation analyses revealed that the pre-to-post intervention changes in BMI and MGS significantly mediated physical self-control, but did not mediate cognitive self-control.ConclusionOur combined exercise and dietary intervention is an effective approach to improve multiple aspects of self-control, reduce BMI, and strengthen MGS among obese adolescents. These findings also suggest that reduced BMI and enhanced MGS mediate specific aspects of self-control.

Thinking into the future: how a future time perspective improves self-control

The dual motive model posits that self-control is the prioritization of distal motives over proximal motives when the two compete. A logical extension of this view is that any factor that increases the incentive value of a distal motive or decreases the incentive value of a proximal motive will make self-control more likely. Here it is proposed that time perspective, or an individual's tendency to attend to thoughts of the past, present, or future, is one factor that influences the incentive value of competing motives. Three studies were conducted to show that time perspective influences the incentive value of competing motives, and thus influences self-control. Study 1 probes correlations and indirect effects between time perspective, incentive value, and self-control. Study 2 replicates and extends study 1 by examining additional dimensions of the future time perspective. Study 3 shows that manipulating time perspective produces changes in self-control, establishing causality. The results suggest that time perspective influences the incentive value of individuals' motives and thus self-control. The results also add support to the dual motive model of self-control, since only the dual motive model predicted these relationships.

Transcendent motivations and virtue development in adolescent marathon runners.

To understand how health, prosocial, and spiritual motivations correspond to changes in the virtues of self-control, patience, and interpersonal generosity among adolescents and emerging adults. Participants included adolescent and emerging adult athletes (N=396; 12-22years, M=18.42, SD=2.03) on marathon training teams fundraising for a faith-based charity. Participants completed self-report questionnaires four times over six months. Participants were 63% female and identified as 61% Caucasian, 17% Latino/a, 10% African American, 6% Asian American, and 6% other. Bivariate latent growth curve models showedpositive relations between baseline levels of transcendent motivations (spiritual, prosocial) and all three virtues(self-control, patience, interpersonal generosity) as well as baseline health motivation and self-control. Linear slopes in all three motivations were positively correlated with change in patience, and greater decreases in these motivations from wave 1 to wave 2 before recovering motivation in subsequent waves correlated with less change in patience. Only the linear slope in prosocial motivation positively correlated with change in generosity. None of the motivation slopes correlated with change in self-control. More than just sport participation is required to cultivate virtue in adolescents; instead, transcendent and non-transcendent motivations are concurrently developing for athletes who increase in prosocial virtues.

Self-control, Emerging Adulthood, and Desistance from Crime: a Partial Test of Pratt’s Integrated Self-control/Life-Course Theory of Offending

Although self-control and life-course perspectives are often viewed as competing, if not incompatible, theoretical traditions, Pratt (European Journal of Criminology, 13, 129–146, 2016) argues that the two perspectives are in many ways complementary. In his new integrated theory, self-control is viewed as a dynamic factor that is subject to change and that influences behavior over the life course, including the decreases in crime that typically come with age. Further, it is argued that increases in self-control reduce the likelihood of offending, in part, because they influence the social environments that individuals find themselves in, the activities they pursue, and their cognitive mindsets. In this study, we conduct a partial test of the integrated self-control/life-course theory, with a special focus on the theory’s relevance to desistance during emerging adulthood. Longitudinal data from a large study of serious young offenders are used to examine within-person changes in self-control and other variables related to desistance from crime. Although certain variables fail to behave as predicted, the overall pattern of results is consistent with the general thrust of the integrated theory, highlighting the role of self-control in the desistance process. We find that absolute increases in self-control exert both direct and indirect inhibiting effects on offending, with the indirect effects operating through various life-course variables. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.

The effect of passive heat stress on distress andself-control in male smokers and non-smokers

In the current study, we tested the effects of core body temperature increases (e.g. heat stress) on affect, self-reported physical discomfort, and subsequent self-control in male smokers and nonsmokers using a novel passive heat stress paradigm, within a distress tolerance framework. Twenty-eight men (14 smokers), completed both heat stress and control sessions in randomized order. Results revealed that increases in core body temperature were associated with increased anxiety, irritability, and body discomfort as well as decreased happiness, with stronger effects for smokers. Smokers and nonsmokers both evidenced less self-control during the heat session and did not differ on this measure, nor on a measure of interoceptive sensitivity. The current study indicates that heat stress is a viable method for studying distress tolerance in men, and suggests the value in examining dynamic changes in self-control as a function of distress. Implications will be discussed for distress tolerance in general and smokers in specific.

Becoming more or less mature? The decline of self-control in middle childhood.

This study examined the developmental change in self-control and its association with daily stressful events during middle childhood, as well as the factors that contribute to individual differences in the trajectory of self-control. A community sample of 302 Singaporean children (42% female, 69% Chinese) and their parents were recruited when the children were age 7. Follow-up assessments were made when the children were ages 8, 9, and 11. Developmental changes were examined using latent growth and autoregressive cross-lagged models. Self-control showed a normative decline over time, and this trajectory was associated with an increase in daily stressful events. There was partial evidence for a reciprocal relationship between self-control and daily stressful events over time. Moreover, the child temperament dimension of effortful control (assessed at age 7) mitigated the decline in self-control, whereas low socioeconomic status predicted lower initial levels of self-control. This study advances current understanding on the developmental change in self-control during middle childhood, as well as the factors that shape the direction and magnitude of this change.