Changes In Hypothalamic Temperature Research Articles

Neuronal basis of Hammel's model for set-point thermoregulation

In 1965, H. T. Hammel proposed a neuronal model to explain set-point thermoregulation. His model was based on a synaptic network encompassing four different types of hypothalamic neurons: i.e., warm-sensitive and temperature-insensitive neurons and heat loss and heat production effector neurons. Although some modifications to this model are suggested, recent electrophysiological and morphological studies support many of the model's major tenets. Hypothalamic warm-sensitive neurons integrate core and peripheral thermal information. These neurons sense changes in hypothalamic temperature, and they orient their dendrites medially and laterally to receive ascending afferent input from cutaneous thermoreceptors. Temperature-insensitive neurons have a different dendritic orientation and may provide constant reference signals, which are important in determining thermoregulatory set points. In Hammel's model, temperature-sensitive and -insensitive neurons send mutually antagonistic synaptic inputs to effector neurons controlling various thermoregulatory responses. The model predicts that warm-sensitive neurons synaptically excite heat loss effector neurons and inhibit heat production effector neurons. In recent studies, one counterpart of these effector neurons may be "excitatory postsynaptic potential-driven neurons," the activity of which is dependent on synaptic excitation from nearby cells. Excitatory postsynaptic potential-driven neurons have sparse dendrites that appear to be specifically oriented, either medially or laterally, presumably to receive selective synaptic input from a discrete source. Another counterpart of effector neurons may be "silent neurons," which have extensive dendritic branches that may receive synaptic excitation from remote sources. Because some silent neurons receive synaptic inhibition from nearby warm-sensitive neurons, Hammel's model would predict that they have a role in heat production or heat retention responses.

Hypothalamic homeothermy across the ultradian sleep cycle.

In the ambient thermal zone for the vasomotor regulation of body temperature hypothalamic temperature changes across the states of the ultradian sleep cycle are the result of state-dependent heat production-heat loss imbalances affecting the temperature of the arterial blood perfusing the brain. However, the changes in arterial blood temperature are efficiently buffered, at a low energetic cost, by the thermal inertia of the mass of body water. Thus, the oscillations in hypothalamic temperature are maintained within a width of a few tenths of a degree and are so small as to be subliminal as thermal feedback stimuli for thermoregulatory responses. This passive hypothalamic homeothermy would support the hypothesis that a phylogenetic pressure was operative early on in mammals in order to limit the duration of the ultradian sleep cycle so as to fit the thermal inertia of the different masses of body water in mammals of different sizes.

Changes in hypothalamic temperature of rats after daily exposure to heat at a fixed time.

Rats were subjected to an ambient temperature (Ta) of 33 degrees C for ca. 5 h during the last half of the dark phase for 5, 14 or 28 consecutive days (heat-exposed rats, HE), while control rats were kept at a constant Ta of 24 degrees C. After the heat exposure schedule, the levels of hypothalamic temperature (T(hy)) as an index of body core temperature in the HE were significantly lower than those of the controls for 2-4 h in the last half of the dark phase. The low levels of T(hy) persisted during the specific period for 1, 3 and 6 days after the end of the 5-, 14- and 28-day heat exposure schedules, respectively. These results confirm that, in rats subjected to daily heat exposure for ca. 5 h at a fixed time per day, their T(hy) falls during the period when the rats were previously exposed to heat, and suggest that the duration of the specific T(hy) change observed after completing the heat exposure schedule depends on the length of the heat exposure schedule.

Mechanisms underlying hypothalamic temperature changes during sleep in mammals

The mechanisms underlying hypothalamic temperature (Thy) changes across the ultradian wake-sleep cycle were analyzed in cats chronically implanted with EEG and EMG electrodes, and transducers that measured Thy and pontine temperature (Tp). The influence of artificially induced changes in (i) systemic blood temperature, (ii) heat loss from the specific heat exchangers of the head, and (iii) carotid artery occlusion, on Thy, Tp and ear pinna temperature (Ts) during waking (W), synchronized sleep (SS) and desynchronized sleep (DS) were assessed in animals maintained in a thermoneutral environment. The results show that the decrease in Thy during SS is dependent on increased heat loss from heat exchangers (ear pinna), whereas the increase in Thy during DS is due to an alteration in the arterial blood perfusion of the circle of Willis receiving an increased supply of warm vertebral blood that replaces a decrease in supply of cool carotid blood.

Changes in hypothalamic temperature modulate the neuronal response of the ventral thalamus to skin warming in rats.

1. The influence of hypothalamic temperature on the activity of warm-excited neurones, which responded to skin warming with an increased firing rate, in the ventro-basal (VB) complex of the thalamus of rats was examined electrophysiologically. 2. The warm-excited neurones were classified into three types: hypothalamus-cold neurones in which the firing rate increased with hypothalamic cooling, hypothalamus-warm neurones in which the firing rate increased with hypothalamic warming and hypothalamus-insensitive neurones in which the firing rate was not affected by hypothalamic temperature. The majority of hypothalamus-cold and hypothalamus-warm neurones increased their firing rate at hypothalamic temperature below and above 38 degrees C, respectively. 3. The threshold temperature at which hypothalamus-warm neurones responded to skin warming was lowered by hypothalamic warming. However, hypothalamus-cold neurones responded to lower skin temperatures during hypothalamic cooling. 4. These results show that the neuronal activity of the VB complex in the thalamus, responding to skin warming, is affected by hypothalamic temperature. Thus thermal information from the peripheral thermoreceptors is modulated by hypothalamic temperature at the level of the relay nuclei of the thalamus.

Responsiveness of monkey preoptic thermosensitive neurons to non-thermal emotional stimuli

Responsiveness of 143 preoptic neurons to changes in hypothalamic temperature and to non-thermal emotional stimuli were investigated while rewarding (foods) and aversive objects (hypertonic saline, a toy snake, an air puffer) were given. About 71% of thermosensitive neurons and 32% of thermally insensitive neurons changed the activity when emotional stimuli were shown to and/or tasted by the monkey. Such responses were modulated by satiety/hunger state and were dependent on the degree of perturbation of emotional state. About half of the neurons tested responded when the monkey opened the mouth and protruded the tongue or moved fingers in trying to obtain foods with strong motivation, but did not when the animal made such movements less readily or reluctantly with the progress of satiation. This response was most frequently found among warm-units. The results raise a possibility that preoptic thermosensitive neurons, besides their postulated thermoregulatory functions, might be involved in the response of coordination with thermal and non-thermal emotional behaviors controlled in the hypothalamus.

Minimal changes in hypothalamic temperature accompany microwave-induced alteration of thermoregulatory behavior.

This study probed the mechanisms underlying microwave-induced alterations of thermoregulatory behavior. Adult male squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus), trained to regulate the temperature of their immediate environment (Ta) behaviorally, were chronically implanted with Teflon reentrant tubes in the medical preoptic/anterior hypothalamic area (PO/AH), the brainstem region considered to control normal thermoregulatory processes. A Vitek temperature probe inserted into the tube measured PO/AH temperature continuously while changes in thermoregulatory behavior were induced by either brief (10-min) or prolonged (2.5-h) unilateral exposures to planewave 2,450-MHz continuous wave (CW) microwaves (E polarization). Power densities explored ranged from 4 to 20 mW/cm2 (rate of energy absorption [SAR] = 0.05 [W/kg]/cm2]). Rectal temperature and four representative skin temperatures were also monitored, as was the Ta selected by the animal. When the power density was high enough to induce a monkey to select a cooler Ta (8 mW/cm2 and above), PO/AH temperature rose approximately 0.3 degrees C but seldom more. Lower power densities usually produced smaller increases in PO/AH temperature and no reliable change in thermoregulatory behavior. Rectal temperature remained constant while PO/AH temperature rose only 0.2-0.3 degrees C during 2.5-h exposures at 20 mW/cm2 because the Ta selected was 2-3 degrees C cooler than normally preferred. Sometimes PO/AH temperature increments greater than 0.3 degrees C were recorded, but they always accompanied inadequate thermoregulatory behavior. Thus, a PO/AH temperature rise of 0.2-0.3 degrees C, accompanying microwave exposure, appears to be necessary and sufficient to alter thermoregulatory behavior, which ensures in turn that no greater temperature excursions occur in this hypothalamic thermoregulatory center.

Thermal changes produced by intrahypothalamic injections of acetylcholine during hibernation and euthermia in Citellus lateralis

1. 1. Changes in hypothalamic temperature following ACh stimulation of the preoptic/anterior hypothalamus of ground squirrels were measured during hibernation and euthermia. 2. 2. Bilateral, 1 μl injections of ACh (10–50 μg/μl) were delivered through removable stainless steel injection tubes, inserted into chronically implanted guide tubes. 3. 3. During hibernation, transient, small-magnitude thermogenic responses and full arousal from hibernation were produced. Higher dose levels elicited responses earlier in the hibernation bout, but did not affect the magnitude of the transient response. Full arousal occurred only in the 2nd half of the bout. 4. 4. During euthermia, dose-dependent decreases in temperature were produced at ambient temperatures of 22 and 5.5°C. Increases in temperature were also observed which were dose-dependent at 5.5°C, but not at 22°C. The direction of response was correlated with brain temperature at the time of injection.

Hypothalamic heating and cooling in monoamine-depleted rabbits.

The role of monoamines in the thermoregulatory responses induced by hypothalamic heating and cooling was investigated in conscious rabbits. Depletion of hypothalamic catecholamines by pretreatment with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) greatly attenuated the rectal temperature and vasomotor responses to hypothalamic heating and cooling. Pretreatment with p-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) depleted the animals of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). The results obtained are consistent with 5-HT having an inhibitory role in the rabbit's vasomotor response to heat stress and activating heat conservation during cold stress. Reserpinized rabbit were depleted of both norepinephrine (NE) and 5-HT and were found to be unresponsive to hypothalamic temperature changes. We conclude that the integrity of the monoaminergic system is viral for the correct functioning of the hypothalamus in maintaining a constant body temperature.

Thermoregulatory responses of a hibernator to hypothalamic and ambient temperatures

Local cooling or heating of the hypothalamus of yellow bellied marmots elicited appropriate thermoregulatory responses to maintain body temperature. Increases in EMG, heart rate, and oxygen consumption were observed during hypothalamic cooling. Conversely, hypothalamic heating generally decreased thermogenic parameters toward minimal levels. Normothermic marmots retained thermoregulatory heat production throughout the year although loss of vasomotor regulation seemed to occur as they prepared for hibernation. The relationship between manipulated changes in hypothalamic temperature and induced changes in oxygen consumption was linear. This proportional relationship at one air temperature (15 °C) was parallel and displaced to the right of that relationship obtained at a lower air temperature (10 °C). These results are consistent with the hypothesis that hypothalamic regulation of body temperature in normothermic marmots is similar to that of nonhibernating mammals, although vasomotor regulation may differ.

Response of single units of the posterior hypothalamus to thermal stimulation.

ArticleResponse of single units of the posterior hypothalamus to thermal stimulation.W Wünnenberg, and J D HardyW Wünnenberg, and J D HardyPublished Online:01 Nov 1972https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1972.33.5.547MoreSectionsPDF (2 MB)Download PDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesGet permissionsTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInWeChat Back to Top Next Download PDF FiguresReferencesRelatedInformation Cited ByTemperature Control in Newborn InfantsTemperature Control in Newborn InfantsTemperature Control in Newborn InfantsWärmehaushalt und Temperaturregelung*Thermoresponsiveness of posterior hypothalamic (PH) neurons of rats to scrotal and abdominal thermal stimulationBrain Research, Vol. 794, No. 1Ventilatory and metabolic responses to cold and hypoxia in conscious rats with discrete hypothalamic lesionsRespiration Physiology, Vol. 111, No. 3Chapter 3 Spinal neuronal thermosensitivity in vivo and in vitro in relation to hypothalamic neuronal thermosensitivityOntogenetic and Adaptive Adjustments in the Thermoregulatory System1 January 2011In vitro thermosensitivity of the midline thalamusBrain Research, Vol. 686, No. 1Responses of extrahypothalamic neurons to short temperature transients during the ultradian wake-sleep cycleBrain Research Bulletin, Vol. 37, No. 3Respiratory responses to combined hypoxia and hypothermia in rats after posterior hypothalamic lesionsPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 426, No. 5Wärmehaushalt und TemperaturregelungActivation of brown adipose tissue thermogenesis by chemical stimulation of the posterior hypothalamusBrain Research, Vol. 534, No. 1-2Thermal Balance and the Regulation of Body TemperatureDetermining neuronal response of the rabbit thermoregulatory center to thermal stimulationNeurophysiology, Vol. 20, No. 3Central Noradrenergic and Serotonergic Mechanisms in Temperature Regulation and AdaptationThermosensitivity of neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat slice preparationBrain Research, Vol. 424, No. 1Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol: EEG changes, bradycardia and hypothermia in the rhesus monkeyBrain Research Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 2Effects of air constituents on thermosensitivities of preoptic neurons: hypoxia versus hypercapniaPflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 409, No. 1-2Significance of Brain Stem Neuronal Connectivities for Thermoregulation and Thermal AdaptationWärmehaushalt und TemperaturregelungAdaptive changes in thermoregulation and their neuropharmacological basisPharmacology & Therapeutics, Vol. 35, No. 1-2Grooming, body extension, and vasomotor responses induced by hypothalamic warming at different ambient temperatures in ratsPhysiology & Behavior, Vol. 38, No. 1Effects of anterior and posterior hypothalamic temperature changes on thermoregulation in the ratPhysiology & Behavior, Vol. 36, No. 6Wärmehaushalt und TemperaturregelungThermoreceptors1 January 2011Heat Balance and the Regulation of Body TemperatureHypothalamic generation of effector signalsJournal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 8, No. 1-2Electrophysiology of the Anterior Hypothalamus: Thermoregulation and FeverThermoafferent systems and their adaptive modificationsPharmacology & Therapeutics, Vol. 17, No. 3Evidence for a caudal brainstem site of action for cannabinoid induced hypothermiaBrain Research Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 3Thermoreception and Temperature Regulation in Homeothermic VertebratesThe convergence onto posterior hypothalamic neurons of signals from thermosensors at different skin areasJournal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 6, No. 1Convergence of thermal inputs at medullary temperature-responsive neurons in rabbitsJournal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 5, No. 2Statistical investigation of the effect of local temperature changes on posterior hypothalamic single unit activityNeurophysiology, Vol. 10, No. 4Heat Production and Temperature RegulationAnterior and posterior hypothalamus: Effects of independent temperature displacements on heat production in conscious goatsPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 373, No. 1THERMOSENSITIVITY OF PREOPTIC NEURONS AND HYPOTHALAMIC INTEGRATIVE FUNCTION IN HIBERNATORS AND NONHIBERNATORSWärmehaushalt und TemperaturregelungHypothalamic and brainstem control of temperature regulationOrganization of brainstem behavioral systemsBrain Research Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 5Hypothalamic Na+ and Ca++ ions and temperature set-point: New mechanisms of action of a central or peripheral thermal challenge and intrahypothalamic 5-HT, NE, PGE1, and pyrogenBrain Research Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 3Wärmehaushalt und TemperaturregelungBody Temperature Regulation: A Critical Commentary on Selected TopicsIFAC Proceedings Volumes, Vol. 6, No. 4Alteration of EEG activity of the hypothalamus by thermal stimulation of the spinal cordPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 344, No. 1Temperature regulation: The spinal cord as a site of extrahypothalamic thermoregulatory functions More from this issue > Volume 33Issue 5November 1972Pages 547-52 https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1972.33.5.547PubMed4635914History Published online 1 November 1972 Published in print 1 November 1972 Metrics

Heat production and hypothalamic temperature changes to norepinephrine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in cold- and warm-adapted rabbits.

The functions of central amines, norepinephrine (NE) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), during changes in adaptation to temperature have not been determined. Likewise, central activation of thermogenesis by monoamines has not been studied to any extent. Paradoxical functions do occur after central injection of monoamines in many species in the thermal neutral zone. Thus, 5-HT lowers rectal temperature in rabbits, sheep, and goats, but raises it in the cat and monkey, whereas the opposite function or lack of effect holds for NE injection (1, 2). Below the lower critical temperature of species studied, central injection of amines apparently decreases internal temperature (3). In cold-adapted guinea pigs, injection of NE into the anterior hypothalamic area caused a calorigenic effect, while 5-HT injection in similar amounts did not (4). The present work investigated to what extent varying doses of NE and 5-HT injected into the anterior hypothalamus in a cold environment influence body temperature and heat produ...

The influence of deep body temperatures and skin temperatures on peripheral blood flow in the pig.

1. The rate of blood flow through the tail of the pig has been measured by means of venous occlusion plethysmography using a mercury in rubber strain gauge. Conscious animals were used in all experiments because previous work had demonstrated that anaesthetics interfere with the animal's ability to vasoconstrict.2. Graded changes in the temperature of the hypothalamus were imposed by means of an implanted thermode. It was found that the change in blood flow depended on the extent of the change in hypothalamic temperature and on the ambient temperature. Below 20 degrees C ambient temperature, heating the hypothalamus did not cause vasodilatation and at 30 degrees C ambient temperature, cooling the hypothalamus caused only slight vasoconstriction, but at 25 degrees C ambient temperature, changes in hypothalamic temperature caused changes in blood flow from full vasoconstriction to full vasodilatation.3. The skin temperature on the trunk was changed by means of water circulated through tubes sewn into a coat worn by the pig. Blood flow in the tail, which was outside the coat, depended on the skin temperature of the trunk, the ambient temperature, and the temperature of the hypothalamus, all of which were varied separately.4. A thermode was implanted in the epidural space in the cervical region of the spinal cord. The change in blood flow in the tail which accompanied a change in thermode temperature was found to depend on the temperature of the thermode and the ambient temperature. Cooling the spine while the hypothalamus was being heated to 43 degrees C resulted in a decrease in blood flow, but when the spine was heated while the hypothalamus was being cooled the increase in blood flow was only slight.5. Local stimulus to the tail in the form of infra-red heat, or increased air movement was followed by changes in blood flow even when deep body temperature remained stable.

Surface area of the squirrel monkey in relation to body weight.

ArticleSurface area of the squirrel monkey in relation to body weight.J T Stitt, J D Hardy, and E R NadelJ T Stitt, J D Hardy, and E R NadelPublished Online:01 Jul 1971https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1971.31.1.140MoreSectionsPDF (413 KB)Download PDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesGet permissionsTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInWeChat "Surface area of the squirrel monkey in relation to body weight.." Journal of Applied Physiology, 31(1), pp. 140–141 Previous Back to Top Next Download PDF FiguresReferencesRelatedInformation Cited ByMicro- and Macroenvironmental Conditions and Stability of Terrestrial Models23 October 2020 | ILAR Journal, Vol. 60, No. 2Body Size and MovementKinesiology Review, Vol. 7, No. 1Bibliography24 July 2015Estimating the surface area of birds: using the homing pigeon ( Columba livia ) as a model8 May 2014 | Biology Open, Vol. 3, No. 6Physiological interaction processes and radio-frequency energy absorptionBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 13, No. 6A finite-difference electromagnetic deposition/thermoregulatory model: Comparison between theory and measurementsBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 8, No. 3A three-dimensional finite-difference thermoregulatory model of a squirrel monkeyInternational Journal of Radiation Oncology*Biology*Physics, Vol. 12, No. 6Thermoregulatory adjustments in squirrel monkeys exposed to microwaves at high power densitiesBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 6, No. 3Thermoregulatory consequences of long-term microwave exposure at controlled ambient temperaturesBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 6, No. 4Operant control of convective cooling and microwave irradiation by the squirrel monkeyBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 6, No. 4Thermoregulation in the Squirrel MonkeyThe measurement of temperature for thermoregulatory studiesPharmacology & Therapeutics, Vol. 27, No. 2Minimal changes in hypothalamic temperature accompany microwave-induced alteration of thermoregulatory behaviorBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 5, No. 1The mass exponent for energy metabolism is not a statistical artifactRespiration Physiology, Vol. 52, No. 2CHARACTERIZING THE THERMAL ENVIRONMENTMicrowaves modify thermoregulatory behavior in squirrel monkeyBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 1, No. 1Measurements of Body Temperature More from this issue > Volume 31Issue 1July 1971Pages 140-1 https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1971.31.1.140PubMed4997467History Published online 1 July 1971 Published in print 1 July 1971 Metrics

Electrical activity from single neurons in Auerbach's plexus.

Electrical activity from single neurons in Auerbach's plexus.

Evidence of deep-body thermoreceptor response to intra-abdominal heating of the ewe.

ArticleEvidence of deep-body thermoreceptor response to intra-abdominal heating of the ewe.R O Rawson, and K P QuickR O Rawson, and K P QuickPublished Online:01 Jun 1970https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1970.28.6.813MoreSectionsPDF (3 MB)Download PDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesGet permissionsTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInWeChat Previous Back to Top Next Download PDF FiguresReferencesRelatedInformationCited ByIce slurry ingestion reduces both core and facial skin temperatures in a warm environmentJournal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 51Keeping Your CoolSports Medicine, Vol. 42, No. 2The influence of ice slurry ingestion on maximal voluntary contraction following exercise-induced hyperthermia1 March 2011 | European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 111, No. 10Ice Slurry Ingestion Increases Core Temperature Capacity and Running Time in the HeatMedicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 42, No. 4Cold Drink Ingestion Improves Exercise Endurance Capacity in the HeatMedicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 40, No. 9Radio frequency electromagnetic fields: mild hyperthermia and safety standardsReceptors11 January 2010Lessons from the past—human and animal thermal physiologyJournal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 26, No. 4-5Disorders of ThermoregulationThermoregulation: Its Role in Microwave ExposureLack of Nonshivering Thermogenesis in Infants Anesthetized with Fentanyl and PropofolAnesthesiology, Vol. 86, No. 4Modeling Homeostatic Responses to Heat and Cold1 January 2011Perioperative Thermoregulatory Dysfunction in a Patient with a Previous Traumatic Hypothalamic InjuryAnesthesia & Analgesia, Vol. 80, No. 6The Autonomic Nervous SystemHuman ThermoregulationPatterns of body temperature during feeding in rats under varying ambient temperaturesPhysiology & Behavior, Vol. 53, No. 2Heart rate and blood pressure changes during radiofrequency irradiation and environmental heatingComparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, Vol. 101, No. 1Thermal climateEnvironment International, Vol. 17, No. 4Mathematical Simulation of the Human Thermal SystemNon-cutaneous peripheral thermosensitivity in the goat (Capra hircus)Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, Vol. 94, No. 4Functional mechanisms of temperature regulation, adaptation and fever: Complementary system theoretical and experimental evidencePharmacology & Therapeutics, Vol. 37, No. 1Thermal stimulation of the hypothalamus does not evoke the acute-phase reactionBrain Research Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 1Effects of selective cutaneous denervation on hypothalamic thermosensitivity in ratsPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 408, No. 1Short-term thermoregulatory adjustments involving opposite regional temperature changesJournal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 11, No. 3Chapter 7 Functional properties of spinal visceral afferents supplying abdominal and pelvic organs, with special emphasis on visceral nociceptionCold-sensitive mechanoreceptors with afferent C-fibres in the sheep duodenumPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 402, No. 4Thermoreceptors in the digestive tract and their roleJournal of the Autonomic Nervous System, Vol. 10, No. 3-4Minimal changes in hypothalamic temperature accompany microwave-induced alteration of thermoregulatory behaviorBioelectromagnetics, Vol. 5, No. 1Temperature regulation and anesthesiaPharmacology & Therapeutics, Vol. 26, No. 2BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION DURING EUTHERMIA AND HYPERTHERMIACENTPAL NERVOUS MECHANISMS REGULATING BODY TEMPERATUREElectrophysiologic Properties and Role of the Vagal Thermoreceptors of Lower Esophagus and Stomach of CatGastroenterology, Vol. 83, No. 5Central nervous versus total body thermosensitivity of the duckInternational Journal of Biometeorology, Vol. 25, No. 3Control aspects of human temperature regulationAutomatica, Vol. 17, No. 2Thermoreception and Temperature Regulation in Homeothermic VertebratesBehavioral patterns proceeding from liver thermoreceptorsPhysiology & Behavior, Vol. 26, No. 1The concept of regulation for human body temperatureJournal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 5, No. 2Effects of total body core cooling on heat production of conscious goatsPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 373, No. 3Control of Body Temperature1 January 2011Respiratory evaporative heat loss regulation in shorn and unshorn sheep during mild heat stressRespiration Physiology, Vol. 30, No. 3Spinal control of temperature regulationEffects of altering spinal cord temperature on temperature regulation in the Adelie penguin,Pygoscelis adeliaePfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 362, No. 1Comparison of shivering in man exposed to cold in water and in airPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 365, No. 2-3Autonomic and behavioral temperature regulationPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 352, No. 2Cold-induced inhibition of thermal panting in shorn sheep. 1. Effect of intensity of cold exposure2 September 2010 | Animal Science, Vol. 16, No. 3Step-wise changes in thermoregulatory responses to slowly changing thermal stimuliPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 339, No. 3Intra-abdominal thermosensitivity in the rabbit as compared with spinal thermosensitivityPfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 340, No. 1Heat balance during preoptic heating and cooling in the ground squirrel, Citellus tridecemlineatusComparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, Vol. 40, No. 3Displacements of rectal temperature modify behavioral thermoregulationPhysiology & Behavior, Vol. 7, No. 1Unilateral splanchnotomy: Its effect on the response to intra-abdominal heating in the ewePfl�gers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology, Vol. 330, No. 4UNGULATESTemperature regulation: The spinal cord as a site of extrahypothalamic thermoregulatory functions More from this issue > Volume 28Issue 6June 1970Pages 813-20 https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1970.28.6.813PubMed5419507History Published online 1 June 1970 Published in print 1 June 1970 Metrics

Behavioral regulation of hypothalamic temperature.

Animals will work to produce changes in hypothalamic temperature. The two main inputs, skin and hypothalamic temperatures, combine to control this behavior. Specifically, the rate at which rats work for changes in hypothalamic temperature is proportional to the sum of the weighted displacements of skin and hypothalamic temperatures from their respective neutral values.