Changes In Carbohydrate Composition Research Articles

Carrot rhamnogalacturonan I structure and composition changed during 2017 in California

Detailed composition, fine structure, and function were determined for carrot pomace fiber remaining after commercial juice extraction from carrots harvested at four different times during 2017, in different California, USA locations. This pomace was treated with commercial enzymes and the changes in carbohydrate composition were analyzed. The enzyme-treated carrot pomace contained pectic oligosaccharides that were branched, unsaturated, partially acetylated and methylated rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) with arabinogalacto-oligosaccharide side chains as well as free galacto-oligosaccharides and galacturono-oligosaccharides detected by MALDI-TOF MS and NMR analysis. The molecular weight and degree of galacto-oligosaccharide polymerization decreased while water solubility increased following enzymatic treatment. While carrot soluble dietary fiber remained relatively constant, insoluble dietary fiber and total dietary fiber increased during the year. The carrot pomace fiber structure changed between the June and September harvests so that it was more susceptible to enzymatic degradation, and its shape became more linear. The diversity of carrot RG-I oligosaccharide structures was the greatest in the enzyme-treated pomace harvested in September and the RG-I became almost completely debranched by the enzyme treatment for the pomace harvested in December. The structural properties of these carrot pomace fiber fractions suggest that they can function as a low viscosity beverage food ingredient, and the rhamnogalacturonan I structure indicated the potential for anti-viral, immuno-modulatory and prebiotic properties. The rhamnogalacturonan structural composition changes during the growing season highlights the need for bioactivity monitoring of carrot pomace obtained from different sources, and harvested at different times during the year.

Changes in Carbohydrate Composition in Fermented Total Mixed Ration and Its Effects on in vitro Methane Production and Microbiome.

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the changes of carbohydrate composition in fermented total mixed diet and its effects on rumen fermentation, methane production, and rumen microbiome in vitro. The concentrate-to-forage ratio of the total mixed ration (TMR) was 4:6, and TMR was ensiled with lactic acid bacteria and fibrolytic enzymes. The results showed that different TMRs had different carbohydrate compositions and subfractions, fermentation characteristics, and bacterial community diversity. After fermentation, the fermented total mixed ration (FTMR) group had lower contents of neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, starch, non-fibrous carbohydrates, and carbohydrates. In addition, lactic acid content and relative abundance of Lactobacillus in the FTMR group were higher. Compared with the TMR group, the in vitro ammonia nitrogen and total volatile fatty acid concentrations and the molar proportion of propionate and butyrate were increased in the FTMR group. However, the ruminal pH, molar proportion of acetate, and methane production were significantly decreased in the FTMR group. Notably, we found that the relative abundance of ruminal bacteria was higher in FTMR than in TMR samples, including Prevotella, Coprococcus, and Oscillospira. At the same time, we found that the diversity of methanogens in the FTMR group was lower than that in the TMR group. The relative abundance of Methanobrevibacter significantly decreased, while the relative abundances of Methanoplanus and vadinCA11 increased. The relative abundances of Entodinium and Pichia significantly decreased in the FTMR group compared with the TMR group. These results suggest that FTMR can be used as an environmentally cleaner technology in animal farming due to its ability to improve ruminal fermentation, modulate the rumen microbiome, and reduce methane emissions.

Drying Characteristics of <i>Chlorella pyrenoidosa</i> Using Oven and its Evaluation for Bio-Ethanol Production

The objective of this research is to study the influence of temperature on drying and changes in carbohydrate composition during the drying. Chlorella pyrenoidosa was dried in oven at various temperatures and initial weight 2 g. The initial moisture content of Chlorella pyrenoidosa was 487.2% dry weight and the composition was hemicellulose (62.76), cellulose (2.39), and lignin (0.46% dry weight). Every 5 min, the moisture content was recorded. The critical moisture contents of Chlorella pyrenoidosa at 50, 60, and 70 °C are 7.2, 3.9, and 3.1% dry weight, respectively. Meanwhile, the equilibrium water contents are 0.53, 0.32, and 0.12% dry weight, respectively. The carbohydrate content in Chlorella pyrenoidosa cell as a result FTIR analysis indicates that the higher temperature of drying the carbohydrate content increases. Drying of Chlorella pyrenoidosa at temperatures of 50, 60, and 70 °C will decrease moisture content without disturb carbohydrate molecule, so the carbohydrate content increases. Therefore, drying of Chlorella pyrenoidosa before converting become bio-ethanol will give benefit to increase the carbohydrate content and initial rupturing of it’s cell.

Roasted Rye as a Coffee Substitute: Methods for Reducing Acrylamide.

Acrylamide is assumed to be a potential carcinogen, and reference values have therefore been implemented in EU legislation. Thus, the food industry needs to reduce the acrylamide content in consumer products to the lowest possible value. In this study, roasted rye was evaluated for its suitability as a coffee substitution product with respect to its acrylamide content. The influence of process modifiers, free asparagine content, storage, and rye type on the final content of acrylamide was investigated. Changes in carbohydrate composition and brightness caused by the roasting process were described. Sample analysis was conducted via GC-MS and HPLC-CAD. Existing methods were adapted to roasted rye as the sample matrix. CaCl2 and asparaginase treatment as well as pH adjustments prior to roasting did not prove to reduce the acrylamide content. A significantly (* p < 0.027) lower free asparagine content in the raw material resulted in a lower formation of acrylamide in the final product. The acrylamide content significantly decreased (**** p < 0.0001) after 3 (1100 ± 18 µg kg−1) and 6 (490 ± 7 µg kg−1) months of long-term storage. Only samples stored for 6 months (490 ± 7 µg kg−1) met the EU acrylamide content requirements (<500 µg kg−1) for grain-based coffee substitution products.

Overexpression of HvCslF6 in barley grain alters carbohydrate partitioning plus transfer tissue and endosperm development.

In cereal grain, sucrose is converted into storage carbohydrates: mainly starch, fructan, and mixed-linkage (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan (MLG). Previously, endosperm-specific overexpression of the HvCslF6 gene in hull-less barley was shown to result in high MLG and low starch content in mature grains. Morphological changes included inwardly elongated aleurone cells, irregular cell shapes of peripheral endosperm, and smaller starch granules of starchy endosperm. Here we explored the physiological basis for these defects by investigating how changes in carbohydrate composition of developing grain impact mature grain morphology. Augmented MLG coincided with increased levels of soluble carbohydrates in the cavity and endosperm at the storage phase. Transcript levels of genes relating to cell wall, starch, sucrose, and fructan metabolism were perturbed in all tissues. The cell walls of endosperm transfer cells (ETCs) in transgenic grain were thinner and showed reduced mannan labelling relative to the wild type. At the early storage phase, ruptures of the non-uniformly developed ETCs and disorganization of adjacent endosperm cells were observed. Soluble sugars accumulated in the developing grain cavity, suggesting a disturbance of carbohydrate flow from the cavity towards the endosperm, resulting in a shrunken mature grain phenotype. Our findings demonstrate the importance of regulating carbohydrate partitioning in maintenance of grain cellularization and filling processes.

Water‐soluble carbohydrates during fermentation and baking of composite wheat and lentil flour—Implications for enhanced functionality

AbstractBackground and objectivesThe nutritional benefits of Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) have been widely acknowledged. Enriching wheat flour using pulses such as lentil flour is a way of increasing both the nutritional and functional content of wheat‐based foods. The properties of lentil that may have specific health benefits to the individual are also widely acknowledged. Functional compounds from plant‐based foods are commonly attributed to polyphenols, inhibitors, vitamins, and soluble and insoluble fiber. Water‐soluble carbohydrates, (WSCs) consisting predominantly of oligosaccharides, make up part of total dietary fiber. The beneficial role of oligosaccharides promoting probiotic health is widely acknowledged. Equally, it is recognized that oligosaccharides cause irritable bowel syndrome limiting the ability for some individuals in consuming pulses.FindingsWe investigated changes in water‐soluble carbohydrate (WSC) composition during the dough fermentation phase of bread making and quantified the residual WSC in the bread. As expected, the addition of lentil flour increased the WSC profile of the resulting composite flours which included raffinose, stachyose, ciceritol, and verbascose. A threefold decrease was observed only for verbascose during the dough mixing phase; however, during fermentation, raffinose and stachyose decreased, but ciceritol was not affected.ConclusionsThe baking process may reduce the effects of IBS suffered by some individuals who consume lentil products prepared by traditional methods. Our study concluded that bread prepared from wheat–lentil flour results in a more complex carbohydrate profile and may potentially enhance the prebiotic functionality compared with bread made from wheat alone.Significance and noveltyIt is now recognized that alternate sources of protein can be gained using plant‐based constituents. The functional properties of plant‐based compounds are also widely accepted. Processing, such as fermentation and baking, can alter the concentration and functionality of plant‐based compounds. In this study, we identified the changes in carbohydrate composition that occur in a wheat–lentil composite flour under the conditions of fermentation and baking.

Dynamic Modeling of Carbon Metabolism During the Dormant Period Accurately Predicts the Changes in Frost Hardiness in Walnut Trees Juglans regia L.

The leafless period is often considered as inactive, although trees have to actively modulate their metabolism through the cold acclimation/deacclimation processes, to cope with frost exposure during winter and to restore growth ability in spring. Carbon metabolism is a key component of these processes through the osmotic control of extracellular ice formation and the trophic control of bud growth. The influence of temperature on the inter-conversion between starch and soluble carbohydrate has been evidenced for years, but we are currently missing an operational tool to predict starch vs. soluble carbohydrate contents during this period, which should allow to better predict frost hardiness. For this purpose, we exposed 1-year-old branches of Juglans regia to constant temperature for one to 3 weeks and measured the changes in carbohydrate composition at three periods (autumn, winter, and spring). As expected, the temperature significantly affected the changes in carbohydrate composition, but the water content and the sampling period were also relevant. Higher starch hydrolysis was observed at low temperature (<5°C) for all sampling periods. Starch hydrolysis was also observed at warm temperature, but in autumn only. These data were used to compare three modeling approaches simulating the changes in carbohydrate composition through enzymatic analogy. The most empirical and the most mechanistic approach did not succeed to simulate external observations (Root Mean Standard Error of Prediction (RMSEP) > 30 mg.g DM−1, Efficiency (Eff) <0), whereas the intermediate model was more efficient (RMSEP = 15.19 mg.g DM−1, Eff = 0.205 and 16.61 mg.g DM−1, Eff = 0.366, for GFS (Glucose + Fructose + Sucrose) and starch, respectively). The accuracy of the model was further improved when using field data for calibration (RMSEP = 5.86 mg.g DM−1, Eff = 0.962; RMSEP = 10.56 mg.g DM−1, Eff = 0.752, for GFS and starch, respectively). This study provided an operative tool to simulate carbohydrate dynamics over leafless period that could predict frost hardiness with approx. 3.4°C accuracy with temperature, water content and initial starch and soluble carbohydrate measurements. It should now be tested under various meteorological conditions and biological systems.

Impact of climate warming on carbon metabolism and on morphology of invasive and native aquatic plant species varies between spring and summer

The rise of global surface temperature by between 1.2°C and 4°C by 2100 is expected to affect freshwater ecosystems and the growth of aquatic plants. By extending the distribution range of invasive macrophytes, climate warming could increase their management costs. The aim of this study was to test the impact of a 3°C warming in spring and in summer on the morphology and physiology of two native species (Mentha aquatica, Myosotis scorpioides) and two invasive species (Ludwigia hexapetala, Myriophyllum aquaticum) under controlled conditions. Our study showed that the increase of spring temperature induced morphological modifications for all species, while a 3°C warming induced changes in carbohydrates composition for native species in spring, and modification of carbohydrate content for invasive species at both seasons. Patterns of carbohydrate content group the two invasive species together, possibly highlighting common physiological mechanisms. Moreover, the increase of spring temperature favoured the apical and/or lateral growth solely for invasive species. Hence, the invasive species specific response to warming suggests that higher temperature may favour their growth in spring, which might allow them to colonise the water column earlier than natives. This competitive advantage could affect aquatic ecosystems functioning and biodiversity in the coming years.

Effects of freezing, freeze drying and convective drying on in vitro gastric digestion of apples

The influence of processing (freezing at −196°C in liquid N2, FN sample; freeze-drying at −50°C and 30Pa, FD sample; and convective drying at 60°C and 2m/s, CD sample) on apple (var. Granny Smith) behavior during in vitro gastric digestion was investigated. Dried apples (FD and CD samples) were rehydrated prior to digestion. Changes in carbohydrate composition, moisture, soluble solids, acidity, total polyphenol content (TPC), and antioxidant activity (AA) of apple samples were measured at different times during digestion. Processing resulted in disruption of the cellular structure during digestion, as observed by scanning electron microscopy, light microscopy, and changes in carbohydrate composition. Moisture content increased (6–11% dmo), while soluble solids (55–78% dmo), acidity (44–72% dmo), total polyphenol content (30–61% dmo), and antioxidant activity (41–87%) decreased in all samples after digestion. Mathematical models (Weibull and exponential models) were used to better evaluate the influence of processing on apple behavior during gastric digestion.

Seasonal variations of the composition of microbial biofilms in sandy tidal flats: Focus of fatty acids, pigments and exopolymers

Biofilms, or microbial mats, are common associations of microorganisms in tidal flats; they generally consist of a large diversity of organisms embedded in a matrix of Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS). These molecules are mainly composed of carbohydrates and proteins, but their detailed monomer compositions and seasonal variations are currently unknown. Yet this composition determines the numerous roles of biofilms in these systems. This study investigated the changes in composition of carbohydrates in intertidal microbial mats over a year to decipher seasonal variations in biofilms and in varying hydrodynamic conditions. This work also aimed to assess how these compositions are related to microbial assemblages. In this context, natural biofilms whose development was influenced or not by artificial structures mimicking polychaete tubes were sampled monthly for over a year in intertidal flats of the Chausey archipelago. Biofilms were compared through the analysis of their fatty acid and pigment contents, and the monosaccharide composition of their EPS carbohydrates. Carbohydrates from both colloidal and bound EPS contained mainly glucose and, to a lower extent, galactose and mannose but they showed significant differences in their detailed monosaccharide compositions. These two fractions displayed different seasonal evolution, even if glucose accumulated in both fractions in summer; bound EPS only were affected by artificial biogenic structures. Sediment composition in fatty acids and pigments showed that microbial communities were dominated by diatoms and heterotrophic bacteria. Their relative proportions, as well as those of other groups like cryptophytes, changed between times and treatments. The changes in EPS composition were not fully explained by modifications of microbial assemblages but also depended on the processes taking place in sediments and on environmental conditions. These variations of EPS compositions are likely to alter different ecosystem processes such as biostabilisation or pollutants trapping.

Analysis of the Structure and Stability of Erythropoietin by pH and Temperature Changes using Various LC/MS

The purpose of stability testing is to provide evidence about how the quality of a drug varies with time under the influence of a variety of environmental factors. In this study, erythropoietin (EPO) was analyzed under different pH (pH 3 and pH 9) and temperature (<TEX>$25^{\circ}C$</TEX> and <TEX>$40^{\circ}C$</TEX>) conditions according to current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP) and International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) guidelines. The molecular weight difference between intact EPO and deglycosylated EPO was determined by SDS-PAGE, and aggregated forms of EPO under thermal stress and high-pH conditions were investigated by size exclusion chromatography. High pH and high temperature induced increases in dimer and high molecular weight aggregate forms of EPO. UPLC-ESI-TOF-MS was applied to analyze the changed modification sites on EPO. Further, normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography was performed to identify proposed glycan structures and high pH anion exchange chromatography was carried out to investigate any change in carbohydrate composition. The results demonstrated that there were no changes in modification sites or the glycan structure under severe conditions; however, the number of dimers and aggregates increased at <TEX>$40^{\circ}C$</TEX> and pH 9, respectively.

Changes in carbohydrate composition in seeds of three tropical tree species submitted to drying and storage at freezing temperature

Changes in carbohydrate composition in seeds of three tropical tree species submitted to drying and storage at freezing temperature

Changes in inulin and soluble sugar concentration in artichokes (Cynara scolymusL.) during storage

The artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) accumulates about 50-70 g kg(-1) of its fresh weight as inulin-type fructan. Inulin fermentation increases gas production and thereby provokes intestinal discomfort in some people. The present research focuses on the changes in carbohydrate composition occurring in artichoke heads during storage under different conditions (18 degrees C, 4 degrees C and 4 degrees C under polypropylene film packing). Carbohydrate content and composition were determined by anion-exchange high-performance liquid chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection. Storage time caused a decrease in inulin content and an average degree of polymerization, accompanied by an increase of free fructose and sucrose due to depolymerization of inulin. Higher-temperature storage and storage without packing induce strong carbohydrate changes. Thereby, eating stored artichoke leads to consumption of an inulin quantity that does not provoke unwanted symptoms related to gas production but sufficient to have a prebiotic effect.

Effect of different irrigation regimes on carbohydrate partitioning in leaves and wood of two table olive cultivars ( Olea europaea L. cv. Meski and Picholine)

In this study, changes in carbohydrate composition were investigated at the end of the biological cycle of two important table olive cultivars ‘Meski’ and ‘Picholine’ grown in Tunisia under different irrigation regimes. A control treatment [100% crop evapotranspiration (ETc)] and a stress treatment (50% ETc) were considered. At the end of August, leaf water potential was measured and sugar compounds were determined in mature leaves and in the wood of fruit-bearing branches by gas chromatography. The leaf water potential increased with the stress treatment in both cultivars, but the increase was more pronounced with ‘Picholine’ than with ‘Meski’. Glucose, fructose, mannitol, sucrose, galactose and inositol were the main sugars found in the leaves and wood of olive trees. Glucose, fructose and mannitol accounted for 90% of the total soluble carbohydrate fraction. The fraction and amount of these sugars changed between cultivars and with irrigation treatment. In the control treatment, the leaves of Meski showed a high level of glucose (48%), fructose (19%) and mannitol (25%), while the leaves of Picholine showed amounts of 57, 15 and 17%, respectively. The restriction of irrigation water (50% ETc) induces an accumulation of glucose in the leaves and wood of ‘Meski’ and an accumulation of mannitol and glucose in the wood of ‘Picholine’, while the leaves showed only an increase in mannitol.

Osmotic adjustment of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is not associated with changes in carbohydrate composition or leaf gas exchange under drought

AbstractGenetic differences in osmotic adjustment (OA) have been reported among chickpea (Cicer arietinum) cultivars. In this study eight advanced breeding lines (ABLs) derived from a cross between CTS 60543 (high OA) and Kaniva (low OA) and Tyson (medium OA) and Kaniva, along with the parents, were evaluated for OA, leaf carbohydrate composition and leaf gas exchange under dryland field conditions in India. The water potential (WP) decreased to lower values (less than −2.5 MPa) in Tyson, M 110 and M 86 than in the other genotypes. With decrease in WP, OA increased by 0.5 MPa in Kaniva and CTS 60543 to 1.3 MPa in M 55. As the decrease in WP varied with genotype, when OA was regressed against WP M 39 and M 55 had greater increases in OA with decrease in WP than the remaining nine genotypes, including the parents. As WP decreased, leaf starch content decreased while total soluble sugars, hexoses and sucrose increased: the decrease in starch was much smaller in M 93 and M 129 than in Tyson and M 51, but genotypic differences could not be detected in the increase in total sugars, hexoses or sucrose. The rates of photosynthesis and transpiration decreased as the WP became more negative, but M 129 reached low rates of photosynthesis (2 μmol m−2 s−1) and transpiration at a WP of −1.7 MPa, whereas Tyson reached the same low rate at −2.4 MPa. While OA varied among the chickpea genotypes, the differences were not associated with the changes in carbohydrate composition or the rates of gas exchange at low values of WP. Further, the degree of OA of the 11 genotypes was not the same as when they were selected for differences in OA under rainout shelter conditions in the field in Australia, suggesting that OA may show poor stability depending upon the stress level, location or physiological stage of the plant. This suggests that OA is not a valuable drought‐resistance trait to select for in chickpea breeding programmes.

Changes in carbohydrate composition in lettuce flower stalks during development

SummaryChanges in carbohydrate composition in lettuce flower stalks were investigated during growth in order to check whether or not accumulated carbohydrates are used for the rapid development of flower stalks and seed formation. Sucrose was the predominant sugar in lettuce flower stalks, followed by fructans of low molecular weight, glucose and fructose.With regard to fructans, only 1-kestose and 1-nystose were detected, and they increased in concentration from the appearance of terminal flower buds to anthesis. Starch concentration was very low (less than 0.03 mg g–1 dry weight). The concentrations of sucrose, fructans and hexose decreased during seed formation. If fully-developed lettuce leaves were removed from every other node at the flower bud stage, no significant differences were noted in the concentrations of sucrose, glucose, fructose, and fructans in the flower stalks of defoliated and control plants. These results suggest that sucrose and fructans are reserve carbohydrates in stems, and that accumulated sucrose and fructans are used for seed development.

Maillard reaction during storage of powder enteral formulas

Mono- and disaccharide compositions and Maillard reaction development in four powder enteral formulas were determined. Also, a study of the changes in this carbohydrate fraction as well as the progress of Maillard reaction during storage of two samples, under different temperature and time conditions and water a activity of 0.44, was carried out. Variable amounts of fructose, glucose, lactose, sucrose, maltose and maltulose were detected in the studied samples. Furosine (ε-2-furoylmethyl lysine), was present in the four enteral samples studied whereas 2-furoylmethyl alanine (2-FM-Ala) and α-2-furoylmethyl lysine were only present in two samples. Storage at 30 and 50 °C produced slight changes in carbohydrate composition. At the two temperatures assayed the same level of carbohydrate was found at the end of storage period studied. The maltose/maltulose ratio did not suffer notable changes under moderately-severe conditions of storage. Furosine, 2-FM-Ala and α-2-furoylmethyl lysine content increased during storage, and the formation of 2-furoylmethyl arginine was detected in one stored sample. Results seem to indicate that 2-furoylmethyl derivatives of lysine, alanine and arginine could be used as good indicators of storage conditions of powder enteral formulas. Moreover, the maltose/maltulose ratio may be a quality indicator of the processing conditions during manufacture of commercial enteral products.

Changes in carbohydrate composition of cucumber leaves during the development of powdery mildew infection

Within 3 days after inoculation, greater rates of decrease of hexoses, and of increases in inositol and α‐glucans, were detected in leaves of cucumber leaves infected with Sphaerotheca fuliginea (now reclassified as Podosphaera xanthii) than in healthy leaves, together with synthesis of fungal mannitol, arabitol and trehalose. With the onset of sporulation (5 days after inoculation, dai), glucose, polyols, trehalose and glycogen content, as well as fresh and dry weight of leaf tissue, increased more rapidly than in healthy plants, while sucrose, raffinose and starch declined. Starch, glycogen and other α‐glucans, extracted from ethanol‐insoluble tissue fractions of different water‐solubility from healthy and infected leaves, were quantified after amyloglucosidase treatment. Infection‐induced alterations in partitioning of photosynthate during a 14 h photoperiod at 7 dai, including a close correspondence in patterns of synthesis of glucose, polyols and glycogen, further clarified the process of diversion of host assimilate to the pathogen. The presence of glucose, but only traces of sucrose in spores, supported evidence from other powdery mildew infections for photosynthate being transferred to S. fuliginea as glucose.

Compositional and quality changes in white cabbage during harvest period and storage

SummaryThe quality of vegetables changes during their maturation in the field and under postharvest conditions. The aim of this study was to characterize the compositional and quality changes in white cabbage during harvest period and storage. Firmness, dry-matter content and soluble sugar concentrations were measured at 3–4 harvest dates and during long-term cold storage in cabbages from two growing sites in two years. The harvest period was characterized by dry matter and sugar accumulation and increasing firmness, resulting in better quality towards the end of harvest period. The changes were mostly opposite to these during the postharvest period. However, the quality did not seriously deteriorate during 6–7 months’ storage under good conditions. Changes in carbohydrate composition at the end of the storage, especially the accumulation of sucrose in the core, probably reflect preparation for new growth.

Carbohydrate Analysis: Can We Control the Ripening of Bananas?

We have developed an experiment for nutritional/introductory biochemistry courses that focuses on carbohydrate analysis--specifically, the carbohydrates found in bananas and the change in carbohydrate composition as the banana ripens. Pairs of students analyze the starch and reducing sugar content of green, ripe, and overripe bananas. Using the techniques and knowledge gained from these analyses, they then investigate the influence of various storage methods on the ripening process. While this experiment was developed for an introductory-level biochemistry lab, it can easily be adapted for use in other laboratory programs that seek to teach the fundamentals of carbohydrate analysis.