Political Regime Change Research Articles

RESISTANCE AND RESILIENCE IN CHANGING INDONESIA: The Political Struggle and Movement of Hidayatullah

This article seeks to endeavors and strategies of an Islamic organization, Hidayatullah, to survive in changing political regimes in the New Order to Reformation period of Indonesia. It was established as an Islamic educational and dakwah (Islamic proselytizing) institution in Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, in 1973. Despite socio-political changes in the country, it has expanded to several provinces in Indonesia which transformed it to become the largest Islamic educational institution with 402 branches of Islamic schools. The organization focuses its activities on Islamic education and dakwah through various ways including printed media such as Suara Hidayatullah magazine, distributed weekly to its branches, mosques, and schools. Based on a literature review of Suara Hidayatullah magazine and interviews with Hidayatullah prominent figures, this article delves into the struggles and movement of Hidayatullah through its dynamics and transformation in socio-political changes in Indonesia. This article argued that in political dynamics and transformation within Hidayatullah organization show the resistance and resilience to survive in the socio-political crisis of Suharto’s New Order era (1966-1998), which discriminated against Islam as a political ideology and in the aftermath of reformation. One of the strategies to comply with the political repressions is to declare Hidayatullah as an Islamic organization like Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah in 2000. This transformation process proves Hidayatullah’s strategic foresight and adaptability in socio-cultural and political changes.

SURSULAPITSCHI AND THE JOURNEY A CONTRIBUTION TO RESEARCH ON CHILDRENS LITERATURE IN HUNGARY

In the following brief reflection, I present some of the characteristics of current and recent Hungarian initiatives in childrens literature, based on the institutional framework and internal literary dynamics. The aim is to give the reader a realistic picture of the current state of research in contemporary Hungarian childrens literature. The paper focuses on the opportunities and challenges facing active and prospective researchers in childrens literature. The text describes the impact of the political and literary regime change on the institutional system and research practices in childrens literature; considers the reasons for counterproductive literary historical approaches, discusses the lack of methods of childrens book criticism and psychology, and proposes some modest methodological suggestion for textual analysis. Despite all the difficulties, for example the legacy of the literary history and the the poorer literary output of the nineties, childrens literature research in Hungary is moving in the right direction. So in this text particular attention is paid to the remarkable initiatives, projects and texts in childrens literature especially of the last 15 years.

A Reusable Past. Opportunities for the Utilization of Industrial Heritage in Salgótarján, Hungary

AbstractIndustrial heritage is not just the industrial landscape, buildings, and material objects, but also the highly complex cultural heritage created by industrial society, with many unique features. The former industrial towns of East-Central European countries have little memory of their early capitalist industrial past, and their socialist legacy is mostly seen as an unwanted and unwelcome burden. Industrial heritage preservation in Hungary was also adversely affected by the ideology of de-industrialization in the late 1980s, and this was compounded by struggles over the politics of memory. Salgótarján, as the seat of Nógrád County, is a city with county rights that has one of the worst social and economic indicators in the country, with dozens of slums, many of them on former industrial sites. The number of sites suitable for greenfield investment in the valley town is low, while the proportion of under-utilized brownfields is high. The real turning point in the development of the settlement was the opening of the mines and the mining boom in the second half of the 19th century. The opening of the mines was soon followed by the construction of larger industrial plants: the steel mill, the hollow-glass and later flat-glass factory, and the ironworks (stove factory). Initially, skilled workers were recruited from abroad, which laid the foundations for a unique society, as much of the population had no ties to the settlement, or even to Hungary—only to the work and their employer. The industrial society of Salgótarján formed a well-defined local community with a sense of identity. The management of the companies and factories, the network of workers' welfare institutions, the managed leisure programs and facilities, and of course the built environment of the colonies played a major role in all this. Under state socialism, the factories continued to operate with an artificially inflated workforce, and after the political regime change in 1989, the privatized plants closed down with dramatic abruptness, leading to social trauma and high unemployment in the settlement. The preservation and presentation of industrial heritage is also important for the city's identity while the built environment is undergoing a radical transformation, which is why buildings that are deemed worthy of preservation should be given a new function as soon as possible so that they may remain an integral part of the settlement.

Directions of the activities of Ukrainian conductors in the 20th century through the prism of art projects

Statement of the problem. The art of conducting is one of the most important aspects of musical culture, which largely affects the development and popularization of musical art as a whole. The 20th century was a period of experimentation and innovation in musical art, when conductors were looking for new forms of expression and new ways of interacting with the audience. Many conductors dedicated their activities to the performance of works of Ukrainian composers, which contributed to their popularization both in Ukraine and abroad. They created programs that included both classical works and modern compositions, thereby enriching the cultural palette of the country. In addition, conductors often initiated the creation of new music groups and festivals, which contributed to the development of the musical infrastructure. Studying the artistic projects of conductors helps to understand exactly how the musical culture of Ukraine was formed and developed, what were the main trends and directions of this development. Thus, the study of the directions of project activities of conductors of Ukraine in the 20th century is important not only for understanding the history of musical culture, but also for its further development. Recent research and publications. The works of Viacheslav Boikо, Anatolii Martyniuk, Dmytro Mazur, Tetiana Potapchuk, Oleksandr Horbenko, Viktoriia Tkachenko, Mykhailo Burban and others are devoted to studing the various issues of the Ukrainian conductors’ activities. Existing studies focus on professional skill, methodical work and individual qualities of conductors, the main emphasis is on individual creativity. Therefore, there is a need to study the activities of Ukrainian conductors of the 20th century in the context of their artistic projects, analysis of the direction and content of the latter. Objectives, methods, and novelty of the research. The purpose of the study is the systematization of the project activities of Ukrainian conductors of the 20th century. The novelty of the study consists in the considering the evolution of the Ukrainian conductors’ activity in the 20th century, the identification of certain directions as a set of artistic projects, and its general assessment from the standpoint of the modern scientific discourse of art history. A complex of general and specific scientific methods is aimed at revealing the research topic, namely: historiographical, biographical, sociocultural, comparative, systemic; materials that were not previously introduced into scientific circulation were used, which allows for a deeper understanding the specifics and scope of the activity of Ukrainian conductors in the considered historical period. Research results. Changes in political regimes, wars, revolutions and other historical events of the 20th century significantly affected the activities of musicians and cultural institutions. The leading Ukrainian conductors, whose creative activity falls on this historical period are Ya. Barnych, L. Brahinsky, H. Veriovka, V. Verkhovynets, I. Vilensky, N. Horodovenko, P. Hrechanichenko, H. Davydovsky, P. Demutsky, V. Yorish, I. Karabyts, M. Kolessa, V. Komarenko, A. Kryvokhyzha, M. Kushch, B. Levitsky, B. Liatoshynsky, I. Maichyk, M. Malko, V. Minko, V. Mishchenko, P. Myloslavsky, A. Pashkevych, K. Pihrov, M. Pokrovsky, F. Popadych, Y. Pribik, M. Radzievsky, B. Svitlichny, E. Skrypchynska, I. Sliota, V. Smekalin, Ya. Stepovy, K. Stetsenko, Ye. Shechtman. As key figures in the musical world, they not only adapted to these changes, but also actively influenced educational and sociocultural processes thanks to their creative activity. Project activity in the field of music in the 20th century was characterized by several key aspects. Among them are the selection of the repertoire (popularization of classical music, assimilation of new genres, such as jazz and pop music, new directions of international importance), directing and theatricalization of opera and ballet productions, organization of musical groups (folk choirs, folk song ensembles and dance, jazz and pop music orchestras), performance activities and organization of concert tours (planning, management). Only in the second half of the 20th century this activity reached its full development and all its components began to be fully realized. Conclusion. The conclusions indicate the dynamics of the development of conductors’ project activity in the 20th century in connection with the expansion of the musical repertoire, the differentiation of musical genres, the cooperation of conductors with composers, experiments with media projects and technologies, the study of musical heritage, artistic initiatives, the management of opera productions, etc. It was noted that the conductors contributed to the development of musical education and the popularization of Ukrainian music through their participation in artistic projects. Thus, in the 20th century, the conducting art evolved reflecting the needs and requirements of the modern musical world. The globalization of the century contributed to the intensive development and expansion of conductors’ capabilities in creating innovative artistic projects that combined music with other forms of art, contributing to the understanding and deepening of musical impressions of the audience and opening new perspectives for the development of musical culture.

Unlocking the tapestry of conservation: Navigating ecological resettlement policies in Nepal

Conservation initiatives involve a complex interplay of various ecological, socio-political, and economic factors. Ecological resettlement (ER), implemented within the context of nature conservation policies, stands as one of the most contested issues worldwide. This study aims to navigate the domain of ER policy in conservation through discursive institutionalism and a policy arrangement approach. Focusing on Nepal's conservation policy pathways over the last seven decades, we critically analyze policy ideas and narratives, trends, patterns of policy development, institutional arrangements, driving factors, and responses to contemporary ER policies. Methods involved a systematic literature review (n = 271), a comprehensive review of policy documents and project reports (n > 150), and expert interviews (n = 20). Over the past 50 years, >7600 households in Nepal have been displaced in the name of ER and are still persisting despite the rhetoric of participatory conservation. With changes in political regimes, conservation policy has shifted from a hunting-focused approach to landscape-level and transboundary conservation. Initially influenced by internal factors such as economic and political governance, conservation policies were later shaped by international conservation discourse. Also, the operational sphere of such policy ideas and narratives ˗ including actors, resources, discourses, and rules ˗ along with trends, priorities, institutional arrangements, and driving factors of ER policies, has changed over time. Further, the exclusion of deprived communities and the capture of conservation benefits by elites have undermined conservation values. This research stresses the importance of a judicious balance between people's welfare and nature's integrity, emphasizing community-based natural resource management models accredited to a conservation standard. We further urge the revision of displacement-oriented conservation policies to secure the rights of Indigenous people and traditional landholders, thereby ensuring conservation and sustainable development at both national and global levels.

The evolution of Political thought in Central Asia: challenges and prospects for Kazakhstan

Central Asia, with its rich history and multinational composition, remains a key region in terms of geopolitics and national security for Kazakhstan. The evolution of political thought in this region has a direct impact on internal and external political processes. This article examines the evolution of political thought and the main challenges faced by Central Asia, as well as the prospects for cooperation to ensure the national security of Kazakhstan. The authors analyze the variety of challenges faced by the countries of the region, including religious radicalism, interethnic conflicts and geopolitical dynamics of cooperation with other states. The changes in the political environment of Central Asia after the change of political regimes in some countries are analyzed. The article emphasizes the need for an in-depth analysis of political processes to ensure stability and national security in the region.

Political Regime and Governance on climate Change. Evidence from the Western Balkan Economies

Abstract The political environment plays a crucial role in steering societies to address the challenges posed by global warming and contributing to global initiatives toward a resilient and environmentally sustainable future. Political regimes in different places in the democracy-authoritarianism spectrum show varying degrees of effort to reduce their nation's respective carbon emissions. This paper aims to determine the role of political regimes along with governance dimensions in climate change mitigation. The analysis uses the V-Dem database and the World Governance Indicators (WGI) to conceptualise and measure each country's political system and its institutional quality of governance, respectively. The empirical model uses a panel database of the variables of interest for the years 1998-2022 regarding the Western Balkan (WB) economies. The target group of countries sparks our interest due to their significant challenges, such as widespread pollution, political regime changes, and severe governance problems. Furthermore, integrating the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis, which suggests a complex relationship between economic growth and environmental sustainability, the analysis provides evidence that the relationship between CO2 emissions and GDP per capita follows a quadratic trend, suggesting that as GDP per capita increases, the associated CO2 emissions may not change linearly but instead follow a parabolic pattern. WB countries also share the ambition of EU accession and hold the EU candidate status. To the extent these states manage to overcome their institutional issues, they will be in the position to implement the EU environmental acquis efficiently, which will amount to a critical step in the region's environmental health. Policymakers and scholars of the field will benefit from this paper since it determines the impact of political systems precisely matched with empirical results to derive conclusive answers regarding the political systems and climate change debate.

Civic space and its effects on advocacy Non‐Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Tanzania

AbstractGlobal trends show that the civic space is shrinking. Specifically, civic space for Civil Society Organizations draws more attention. The shrinkage is caused by increased authoritarianism and democratic backsliding. Experience shows that advocacy based Non‐Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are more affected. The situation in Tanzania is comparable to other parts of the world. However, literature in Tanzania does not establish experiences to characterize the civic space of advocacy NGOs and does not explore the effects of existing civic space on advocacy NGOs. Drawing on Tanzania, this study examines NGOs experience and the effects of civic space on their roles. This study is anchored in interpretivism and case studies, following a qualitative path. Four NGOs and 10 activists were included. Interviews and documentary reviews were used to collect data, and a thematic approach was used to analyse the data. The findings reveal that the civic spaces for advocacy NGOs is changing, unpredictable and contested. There has been negative and positive experiences due to change of political regimes. This causes advocacy NGOs to fail to have long‐term plans, increased fear, loose focus and fail to emerge as strong democratic institutions. NGOs must push for, and the government should accept constitutional, and legal changes to ensure NGOs effective functioning. This specific focus could be extended to other parts of Africa, Asia and Europe, where advocacy NGOs face the same challenges.

ТРАДИЦИОННЫЕ ФОРМЫ ОБЩИННОГО САМОУПРАВЛЕНИЯ КЫРГЫЗОВ

The article describes the forms of the ancient communal self-government of the Kyrgyz people that existed in previous centuries. Some of these forms have survived to the present day, while others are being revived today, enriching the modern palette of local self-government in Kyrgyzstan. Such socially useful forms of national self-government and national self-government as ashar, kurultai, etc., which came from ancient times, are particularly highlighted. The article, among other things, describes some features of the ancient tribal division of the Kyrgyz, which contributed to the preservation of many forms of communal self-government. Examples from the scientific and historical literature are given, which clearly demonstrate the traditional community rules of mutual assistance and collective action to improve living conditions on the territory. Today, these forms of public self-government, along with some externally introduced European innovations, form the basis for the formation of elements of the so-called everyday democracy. This article summarizes examples from various sources in the form of a description and analysis of the traditions of the collective Kyrgyz community, as well as the fact that despite the change of political regimes, communal forms of cooperation successfully coexist with the modernized municipal government.

Cold War heritage dissonance and disinheritance as a heritage alternative: the case of Soviet military remnants in the Baltic states

ABSTRACT Despite the ongoing efforts towards Cold War heritage-making in Europe, the ambiguities in meaning and the cultural status of certain materialities from the second half of the 20th century across different national contexts highlight a heritage dissonance at play. Focusing on the case of the Baltic states, we analyse the engagements with Soviet military remnants since the early 1990s in the context of changing political regimes. We approach the prevailing practices of disinheritance along the same conceptual lines as heritage-making and highlight how disinheritance has contributed to shaping national identities and future-oriented landscape relations. We argue that disinheritance can be a legitimate alternative strategy for dealing with difficult legacies. In addition, we shed light on how the fragmented attempts to preserve and re-narrativize certain Soviet military remnants reflect the constrained relations between the political agendas of post-1990s nationalism and European integration.

Coup d'état in Africa and stock market returns: The case of French companies

This article studies the impact of recent coups d'état in French-speaking Africa on the stock market performance of French companies. Using stock prices of 197 French companies over the period September 2020 to September 2023, our results highlight a negative impact of coups d'état on the stock market performance of French companies. We also observe the heterogeneity of these companies' reactions depending on: (i) the country affected by the coup; (ii) the companies' sector of activity; (iii) coups d'état with reshuffle or change of political regime; (iv) pro- or anti-France post-coup actions. In so doing, this article provides the first evidence of the impact of recent coups in Africa outside the affected territories.

The process of personalization in Nicaragua: Lessons from the hybrid regime

This article explores how personalization was formed in Nicaragua under the leadership of Daniel Ortega, focusing on four factors: short-term, long-term, domestic, and international perspectives. Nicaraguan politics are often structured by the country's relationship with the USA and regional powers. However, domestic actors make decisions regarding political regime changes. Therefore, the process of personalization must be considered in both domestic and international politics. This study's analysis unequivocally demonstrates that domestic and international factors have always influenced political regime changes in Nicaragua. However, personalization is primarily formed by domestic factors, with external factors reinforcing domestic movement in Nicaragua. In addition, this study shows that it is challenging to explain the process of Ortega's personalization according to short-term factors such as populism. Instead, it is a long-term factor, specifically the traditional power-sharing method in a duopoly, that pushes Ortega's personalization forward. We conclude that Nicaragua's hybrid regime resulted in personalization.

Law, political economy and war reparation: The case of Bosnia and Herzegovina

AbstractWhat are the after‐effects of the Bosnia and Herzegovinian (BH) transition from a post‐socialist, post‐genocide, and post‐ethno‐nationalist state into a European liberal democracy? This article makes a case for war reparation and argues that while poverty reduction has not been among the stated aims of transitional justice mechanisms, it is of critical importance to study war victims' deprivation in the context of historical patterns of structural injustice and examine liberal reconstruction policies that failed to provide compensation and legal redress for gross violations of human rights and serious violations of humanitarian law. The article uses the historical sociology approach as a method of analysis to investigate how moving away from a socialist to a capitalist economic model, from war to peace, and from one party political system to liberal democracy has resulted in structural injustice and growing levels of poverty that adversely impact most vulnerable Bosnians. The article presents an argument that the lack of post‐war reparation programs, coupled with an inadequate emphasis on political regime change, poverty reduction programs and social and economic rights such as access to welfare, cash assistance, food, transportation, education, pension, and disability benefits to ensure the quality of living is detrimental to everyday lives of war victims and people who live at the bottom of the society.

Political regimes and self-reliance in the Indian arms industry

ABSTRACT This study assesses the effectiveness of government initiatives and explores the impact of a shift in political regimes in reducing arms imports. We employ an Interrupted Time Series design using the Prais-Winsten Regression to assess the impact of India’s increased focus on achieving self-reliance in arms manufacturing with the change in political regimes in 2014. The time period analyzed is from 2004 to 2022. Our findings suggest that policies associated with the change in political regimes have succeeded in curbing arms imports. This paper offers insights into the broader implications of political regime changes on a nation’s quest for self-reliance in arms manufacturing, making it valuable for defense analysts and scholars specializing in international relations and arms trade.

A story of entanglement between Indonesian national heroes, museums, and decolonization

Sultan Hasanuddin of South Sulawesi (1631-1670), Javanese Prince Diponegoro (1785-1855), and Teuku Umar of Aceh (1854-1899) were all acknowledged in 1973 by the Indonesian government as National Heroes for their resistance against the Dutch colonial power. This article discusses how their stories and belongings – exhibited in museums – intertwine with museum decolonization. The focus of this article relies on research in province museums in Makassar, Jakarta, and Banda Aceh. They were all established in colonial times and are all in some way related to the three heroes. These examples show how the decolonization of Indonesian museums is entangled with changing political regimes.

Глобальні виклики та ризики як детермінанти економічного прогресу країн у контексті глобальних трансформацій

The aim of the article is to identify the global challenges and risks that determine the economic progress of countries in the context of global transformations. The study argues that the global transformations of recent decades have radically changed the geopolitical and geo-economic space, influencing the dynamics of economic development and socioeconomic progress. It has been established that in research, economic progress is often equated with economic development and economic growth. Scientific approaches of domestic researchers to the understanding of economic progress are considered. It is confirmed that global economic progress is a multidimensional process and is not limited only to the economic sphere, it combines technological, social, political, informational and other kinds of progress. The dynamics of the distribution of the countries of the world by the level of gross national income (GNI) per capita has been determined. The dynamics of economic growth in the world is analyzed. A slowdown in economic growth for countries has been identified and the main reasons for this phenomenon have been identified. An assessment of the risk structure for the short-term (2 years) and long-term (10 years) periods was carried out in accordance with a study by the World Economic Forum. The role of false information and disinformation among the threats to economic progress is revealed. The spread of propaganda and false information has been confirmed to affect press freedom. It is argued that the disinformation industry threatens both political and economic stability, deepens the crisis of democracy in the world. An analysis of the change of political regimes in the world is carried out, changes in political systems in the regions are evaluated. Threats to global democracy have been identified. Among the determinants of economic progress, cybersecurity is singled out. The main global cyber threats are analyzed. The role of violation of the principles of peace and security in maintaining global economic development is argued. The main environmental risks, which are important determinants of economic progress, have been identified. It is emphasized that climate change leads to the depletion of natural resources, which are important for economic activity. Another threat is the growing number of so-called climate refugees. Social polarization is confirmed to be a risk to the global economy and global economic progress. The dynamics of the Social Progress Index is analyzed. The measures necessary to achieve global economic progress taking into account global challenges and risks are proposed.

The Legal Transplants of “Taiwan Area” with the Perspective of “One Country, Two System” Policy

The formulation of laws has its temporal and spatial background, and is constrained by political changes. The laws of “Taiwan area” area and main-land are different while the reason is Controversy and complex. The laws of “Taiwan area” area are related to the change of political regime. The legal systems formulated by different regimes come from the political demands of the ruling authorities. Therefore, the legal system of compulsory domination over “Taiwan area” has become special legal culture in the history of law. In the development of the legal system in “Taiwan area”, there are many elements of succession of the law. With regard to its pros and cons, with the gradual expansion of the internal legal history research, it has also been criticized and reviewed. This article intends to sort out the status of legal succession in “Taiwan area” and this topic. For the academic debate on whether the law will continue to be accepted or not, this article observes from “modernization theory” and “dependency theory” of the national development theories respectively. The author puts forward the view that laws in “Taiwan area” continue to be intertwined with complicated institutional changes and it should adopt a compromise approach.

Bank Performance: Do Political, Legal and Regulatory Institutional Reforms Matter?

This study sought to ascertain if political, legal, and regulatory factors influence the performance of Tanzania's publicly traded commercial banks. A quantitative data was obtained from three major commercial banks notably CRDB, NMB, and NBC with a sample size of 120 employees of the commercial banks. The result from multiple regressions shows that political and regulatory reforms improved commercial banks' operational performance. However, legal reforms had a significant negative impact on commercial bank operational performance. The study therefore recommends that commercial banks be politically flexible and adaptable to changing political regimes. Fiscal and monetary policies must be flexible. The central bank and ministry of finance and planning should regularly review regulations because they affect commercial bank performance, the research suggests. Legal reforms should be fair to commercial banks and their customers to avoid harming commercial bank performance.

The Contribution of Czechoslovakia to Creation of the Independent State of Israel

This article examines the diplomatic relations between Czechoslovakia and the Zionist movement during the late 1940s in regard to Czechoslovakia's contribution to the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948. The support provided by Czechoslovakia, both diplomatically and militarily, played a pivotal role in the formation of an independent Jewish state. Notably, this assistance continued even after Czechoslovakia underwent a political regime change following the communist coup d'état in February 1948. The article aims to unravel the reasons behind this exceptional cooperation between two seemingly distant actors, both geographically and ideologically. Drawing upon recently disclosed archival collections from the relevant Czech archives and providing the insight to the foreign policy of a Soviet satellite, this research aligns with the historiographic paradigm known as the New Cold War History. By focusing on the contributions of satellite states to Cold War history, it sheds light on Czechoslovakia's significant role in shaping the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East in late 1940s. Even though it might have been a somewhat marginalized story in the later decades of the Cold War due to the affiliation of the two countries with opposite ideological blocs, the history of Czechoslovakia's contribution to the creation of the State of Israel is now recognized as one of the significant narratives in the mutual relations between the two states, demonstrating the importance of past-present linkages.

Economic and political causes for transformations of social policy in the 20th century

The paper analyses dynamics of social policy in the 20th century in Germany, Britain, France, Spain, Russia, the USA and China as the largest states, where the largest changes in the field of social security took place. The existing approaches to the typology of social states are considered. The article studies reasons for the formation, changes and organisation of the social security systems, the mutual influence of the different states in the field of social policy. The article presents an assessment of the problems faced by social states, evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of different models of social policy, and overview of changes in models in different countries. Economic and political factors influencing decision-making in the field of social policy, as well as the consequences of social reforms, are analyzed. Analysis of the causes of transformations in social policy is carried out through the study of institutions, regulations, and statistical data. The organization, regulation and modernization of pension and health insurance systems, benefits, allowances and subsidies for certain categories of consumers in the 20th century was caused by large-scale economic and political transformations. Mass industrial production made goods more accessible, and redistribution systems became a tool for balancing the market and ensuring the sustainability of the economy. Democratization and expansion of suffrage, the spread of radical ideologies or changes in political regimes created a demand for means of ensuring social stability, which was supplied by the social programs. The increase in spending on social policy began to create problems for the sustainability of budgets at the end of the 20th century, which led to attempts to limit social programs, but a reduction in spending did not occur due to the political and economic importance that the welfare state has acquired in the 20th century.