Maturational Changes Research Articles

엑셀 매크로를 이용한 고교학점제 과목 선택 연습 프로그램 개발 및 진로교육 적용 방안

This study was conducted to develop a "High School Credit System Course Selection Practice Program" to assist high school freshmen and third-year middle school students in career planning and understanding the high school credit system. The program consists of "School Designated Course Settings," "Student Selected Course Settings," and "Student Selection Sheets," and is designed using Excel's data validation and macro functions to facilitate course offering and designation. Additionally, a career education program for third-year middle school students was developed for use in subjects such as "Technology and Home Economics," "Careers and Occupations," and creative experiential activities. It is recommended to modify this program according to the guidelines of local education offices, and subsequent research analyzing changes in students' career maturity and high school admission decision factors after applying the career education program is expected to further enhance the validity of the study.

Longitudinal functional brain connectivity maturation in premature newborn infants: modulatory influence of early music enrichment

Abstract Premature birth affects brain maturation, illustrated by altered brain functional connectivity at term equivalent age (TEA) and alters neurobehavioral outcome. To correct early developmental differences and improve neurological outcome, music during the NICU stay has been proposed as an auditory enrichment with modulatory effects on functional and structural brain development, but longitudinal effects of such interventions have not been studied so far. We longitudinally investigated resting-state functional connectivity (RS-FC) maturation in preterm infants (n=43). Data-driven Independent Component Analyses (ICA) were performed on scans obtained at 33- and 40-weeks gestational age (GA), determining the presence of distinct RSNs. Connectome analysis ´accordance measure´ quantitively examined the RS-FC both at 33- and 40-weeks GA. Further comparing the internetwork RS-FC at 33- and 40 weeks GA provided a circuitry of interest (COI) for significant maturational changes in which the effects on the RS-FC of a music intervention was tested. The connectome analyses resulted in a COI of RS-FC connections significantly maturing from 33 to 40 weeks GA, namely between the thalamic/brainstem and prefrontal-limbic, salience, sensorimotor, auditory and prefrontal cortical networks; between the prefrontal-limbic and cerebellar, visual and left hemispheric precuneus networks; between the salience and visual, and cerebellar networks; and between the sensorimotor and auditory, and posterior cingulate/precuneus networks. The infants exposed to music exhibited significantly increased maturation in RS-FC between the thalamic/brainstem and salience networks, compared to controls. This study exemplifies that preterm infant RS-FC maturation is modulated through NICU music exposure, highlighting the importance of environmental enrichment for neurodevelopment in premature newborns.

Role of Chitosan in the Coloring of Berries and Phytochemical Changes in Physalis angulata L. During Harvest Maturity

Physalis angulata L. berries are green in the initial stage of maturity and turn yellow when fully mature due to an increase in carotenoids. However, the coloration of the epidermis of the berry should not be the reference for harvesting maturity, since the calyx is fully closed. The use of an edible chitosan coating delays the color changes in the berry by reducing the respiration rate. This work studies the effect of harvest maturity and chitosan on the shelf life and berry coloring in Physalis angulata L. Three factors were considered, being harvest maturity stage (green mature (GM), yellowish-green (YG) and yellow (Y)), chitosan coating (0, 0.5, and 1%), and storage time (10, 20, 30 days). The fruits were stored at 20 °C and 85% Rh. The results showed that on the harvesting stage, chitosan coating had a significant effect on the quality and shelf life of berries during storage time. The value of carotenoid and phenol contents, flavor index, chroma, and hue significantly increased with berry maturity. Chitosan delayed the decrease in chlorophyll, phenol contents, antioxidant capacity, berry maturity, and color change. The results show that in the berries coated with 1% chitosan during storage, changes in color were less in comparison with the control condition (no chitosan). The highest decrease of hue angle and color index (17.92°) was observed in the control. The highest total antioxidant (78.42%) was observed after 30 days of storage in MG berries treated with a 0.5% chitosan coating.

Radiographic changes in root maturation of immature dog premolars after direct pulp capping with Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA) : A randomized controlled trial

Radiographic changes in root maturation of immature dog premolars after direct pulp capping with Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA) : A randomized controlled trial

Energy and Water Interventions That Contribute to the Climate-Proofing of Buildings on Multiple Scales: A Literature Review

In the framework of planning and designing resilient housing under a changing climate, the present study constitutes a comprehensive literature review exploring climate-proofing solutions for the built environment concerning energy supply and water availability. This study delved into a multitude of sources that included scientific papers and reports and European Union guidelines and tools. The identified solutions covered building, urban, and territorial scales. The hazards of interest included heatwaves, heavy precipitation, droughts, earthquakes, wildfires, and storms. Several types of solutions were found (e.g., nature-based, education/capacity-building, engineering/built environment, etc.) with different times of application and timescales of action (e.g., defensive measures, short-term solutions, long-term adaptive, etc.). The maturity of the identified solutions was assessed based on the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) and Societal Readiness Level (SRL). Moreover, each solution’s contribution to climate mitigation was investigated. The solutions were assessed in terms of self-sustainability and other key criteria, namely, effectiveness, contribution to resilience maturity and climate change mitigation, adaptive nature, financing access, risk reduction, and social cohesion. In total, 85 energy and water solutions were determined from the desk review analysis and 67 (30 for the energy sector and 37 for the water sector) solutions were finally retained and proposed.

Comparison of aging of nonextraction treated and normal untreated occlusions: 40-year follow up

The objective of this study was to compare the aging changes of the dental arches in patients treated without extractions and untreated normal occlusion subjects after a four-decade follow-up. This retrospective study evaluated two groups: The Treated Group (Group T) comprised 16 patients (6 male; 10 female) presenting with Class I or Class II malocclusions treated orthodontically without extractions. Dental models were evaluated 3 stages: T1 (pretreatment, 13.20 years), T2 (posttreatment, 15.07 years) and T3 (long-term posttreatment, 50.32 years). The Untreated Group (Group UT) consisted of 22 untreated normal occlusion individuals. The dental casts were evaluated at the ages of 13.32 (T1), 17.82 (T2) and 60.95 years (T3). The dental casts were digitized and the irregularity index, intercanine, interpremolar and intermolar widths, overjet and overbite, arch length and perimeter were measured. Intergroup comparisons were performed with independent t tests (P < 0.05). From T1 to T2, the treated group showed maxillary and mandibular crowding and overjet decrease and a maxillary interpremolar and intermolar width increase compared to the untreated group. From T2 to T3, a greater maxillary and mandibular crowding increase and a greater arch length decrease were observed in the treated group compared to the normal occlusion subjects. Overbite increased in the treated group and decreased in the untreated group. The maturational changes of treated patients were different from untreated normal occlusion subjects. Relapse might have contributed for the greater changes observed in incisor crowding and arch length observed in orthodontically treated patients. The aging changes of untreated normal occlusions and nonextraction treated patients, after a four-decade follow-up, proved to be different, indicating that relapse of orthodontic treatment played a role in aging changes of treated patients.

Debt maturity and climate change exposure: does life cycle moderate?

PurposeIn this study, I explore how climate exposure influences debt maturity and whether the life cycle moderates this relationship.Design/methodology/approachThis study employs robust panel fixed-effects regression models on 32,249 firm-year observations over 2002–2022. The meticulous examination of the relationship between climate exposure and debt maturity and the use of IV regression models to address endogeneity ensure the validity and reliability of the findings. Exploiting an external shock to validate the results further enhances the robustness of the analysis.FindingsThe study reveals that climate change exposure significantly negatively affects debt maturity, a finding that holds for both climate-related opportunities and regulatory risks. While the life cycle impacts debt maturity, it exacerbates the negative effect for firms in the introductory and growth phases. This exacerbation is due to underinvestment problems and a lack of financial flexibility. These findings shed new light on the relationship between climate exposure and debt maturity, providing valuable insights for corporate finance professionals and strategic managers.Practical implicationsThe evidence presented in this study has strategic implications for corporate managers, investors, academia and other stakeholders. The insights on the choice or substitution of debt maturity during certain life cycle phases can provide valuable guidance to management, empowering them to make informed decisions.Originality/valueThe dynamic role of the corporate life cycle in the relationship between capital structure and climate exposure is a novel area of research. This paper significantly contributes to our understanding of the combined relationship of firm life cycle and climate exposure on debt maturity, offering a fresh perspective on an underexplored topic. This study’s unique approach and original findings will pique the interest of academic researchers and corporate finance professionals alike.

Ventral attention network connectivity is linked to cortical maturation and cognitive ability in childhood.

The human brain experiences functional changes through childhood and adolescence, shifting from an organizational framework anchored within sensorimotor and visual regions into one that is balanced through interactions with later-maturing aspects of association cortex. Here, we link this profile of functional reorganization to the development of ventral attention network connectivity across independent datasets. We demonstrate that maturational changes in cortical organization link preferentially to within-network connectivity and heightened degree centrality in the ventral attention network, whereas connectivity within network-linked vertices predicts cognitive ability. This connectivity is associated closely with maturational refinement of cortical organization. Children with low ventral attention network connectivity exhibit adolescent-like topographical profiles, suggesting that attentional systems may be relevant in understanding how brain functions are refined across development. These data suggest a role for attention networks in supporting age-dependent shifts in cortical organization and cognition across childhood and adolescence.

Cardiovascular Ultrasound Predictors for Brain Alterations in Fetuses With Heart Disease: An Exploratory Review of the Literature.

To identify cardiovascular ultrasound predictors for brain anomalies in fetuses with heart disease. A literature search was performed in the following databases: MEDLINE through OVID, EMBASE, Cochrane Registry Center for Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), and LILACS, from their inception until May 2023. Clinical studies, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, cohorts, and systematic reviews were included. Data extraction was performed, and the risk of bias was assessed using the QUADAS-2 tool. Among 2705 studies evaluated, after filtering information, 10 articles were selected that met the inclusion criteria. These studies noted the following outcomes: a decrease in fetal head circumference, changes in brain maturation measured in days, decreased depth of brain fissures, and a decrease in total brain volume. The studies show a statistically significant correlation with the presence of the following cardiovascular predictors: low or mixed oxygen content in the ascending aorta (p < 0.001), retrograde flow in the aortic arch (p < 0.001), lower z values of the MCA-PI (p < 0.05), higher UA-PI z values (p < 0.01), and lower CPR (p < 0.05). In addition, lower values of left ventricular flow (p < 0.01), ductus arteriosus (p < 0.0001), and combined cardiac output index (p < 0.01) were reported. This review describes the most relevant evidence correlating the effects of hemodynamic changes that lead to states of chronic hypoxia related to the aforementioned changes in the central nervous system.

Towards a neurodevelopmental model of bipolar disorder: a critical review of trait- and state-related functional neuroimaging in adolescents and young adults.

Neurodevelopmental mechanisms are increasingly implicated in bipolar disorder (BD), highlighting the importance of their study in young persons. Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated a central role for frontotemporal corticolimbic brain systems that subserve processing and regulation of emotions, and processing of reward in adults with BD. As adolescence and young adulthood (AYA) is a time when fully syndromal BD often emerges, and when these brain systems undergo dynamic maturational changes, the AYA epoch is implicated as a critical period in the neurodevelopment of BD. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies can be especially informative in identifying the functional neuroanatomy in adolescents and young adults with BD (BDAYA) and at high risk for BD (HR-BDAYA) that is related to acute mood states and trait vulnerability to the disorder. The identification of early emerging brain differences, trait- and state-based, can contribute to the elucidation of the developmental neuropathophysiology of BD, and to the generation of treatment and prevention targets. In this critical review, fMRI studies of BDAYA and HR-BDAYA are discussed, and a preliminary neurodevelopmental model is presented based on a convergence of literature that suggests early emerging dysfunction in subcortical (e.g., amygdalar, striatal, thalamic) and caudal and ventral cortical regions, especially ventral prefrontal cortex (vPFC) and insula, and connections among them, persisting as trait-related features. More rostral and dorsal cortical alterations, and bilaterality progress later, with lateralization, and direction of functional imaging findings differing by mood state. Altered functioning of these brain regions, and regions they are strongly connected to, are implicated in the range of symptoms seen in BD, such as the insula in interoception, precentral gyrus in motor changes, and prefrontal cortex in cognition. Current limitations, and outlook on the future use of neuroimaging evidence to inform interventions and prevent the onset of mood episodes in BDAYA, are outlined.

Maturational changes in frontal EEG alpha and theta activity from infancy into early childhood and the relation with self-regulation in boys and girls

There is increasing interest in examining the development of frontal EEG power in relation to self-regulation in early childhood. However, the majority of previous studies solely focuses on the brain’s alpha rhythm and little is known about the differences between young boys and girls. The aim of the current study was therefore to gain more insight into the neural mechanisms involved in the emergence of self-regulation. The sample consisted of 442 children and data were collected at approximately 5 months, 10 months, and around 3 years of age. Latent growth curve models indicated that,while the neurobiological foundations of self-regulation are established during infancy,it is the maturation of the frontal alpha rhythm that contributes to variations in both observed and parent-reported self-regulation. In addition, it appears that boys might have a greater reliance on external regulation than girls during early childhood, as evident by higher scores of girls on both measures of self-regulation. More insight into the role of external regulators in brain maturation can help to implement interventions aimed at establishing bottom-up self-regulatory skills early in life, in order to provide the necessary foundations for the emergence of top-down self-regulatory skills in the preschool period.

Enteroids to Study Pediatric Intestinal Drug Transport.

Intestinal maturational changes after birth affect the pharmacokinetics (PK) of drugs, having major implications for drug safety and efficacy. However, little is known about ontogeny-related PK patterns in the intestine. To explore the accuracy of human enteroid monolayers for studying drug transport in the pediatric intestine, we compared the drug transporter functionality and expression in enteroid monolayers and tissue from pediatrics and adults. Enteroid monolayers were cultured of 14 pediatric [median (range) age: 44 weeks (2 days-13 years)] and 5 adult donors, in which bidirectional drug transport experiments were performed. In parallel, we performed similar experiments with tissue explants in Ussing chamber using 11 pediatric [median (range) age: 54 weeks (15 weeks-10 years)] and 6 adult tissues. Enalaprilat, propranolol, talinolol, and rosuvastatin were used to test paracellular, transcellular, and transporter-mediated efflux by P-gp and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), respectively. In addition, we compared the expression patterns of ADME-related genes in pediatric and adult enteroid monolayers with tissues using RNA sequencing. Efflux transport by P-gp and BCRP was comparable between the enteroids and tissue. Efflux ratios (ERs) of talinolol and rosuvastatin by P-gp and BCRP, respectively, were higher in enteroid monolayers compared to Ussing chamber, likely caused by experimental differences in model setup and cellular layers present. Explorative statistics on the correlation with age showed trends of increasing ER with age for P-gp in enteroid monolayers; however, it was not significant. In the Ussing chamber setup, lower enalaprilat and propranolol transport was observed with age. Importantly, the RNA sequencing pathway analysis revealed that age-related variation in drug metabolism between neonates and adults was present in both enteroids and intestinal tissue. Age-related differences between 0 and 6 months old and adults were observed in tissue as well as in enteroid monolayers, although to a lesser extent. This study provides the first data for the further development of pediatric enteroids as an in vitro model to study age-related variation in drug transport. Overall, drug transport in enteroids was in line with data obtained from ex vivo tissue (using chamber) experiments. Additionally, pathway analysis showed similar PK-related differences between neonates and adults in both tissue and enteroid monolayers. Given the challenge to elucidate the effect of developmental changes in the pediatric age range in human tissue, intestinal enteroids derived from pediatric patients could provide a versatile experimental platform to study pediatric phenotypes.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Vancomycin and its Comparison with Population Pharmacokinetic Model in Neonates.

Vancomycin has a narrow therapeutic window and a high inter-individual pharmacokinetic variability, especially in neonates with fast maturational and pathophysiological changes, that needs individualized dosing. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model and population pharmacokinetic (PopPK) model are both useful tools in model-informed precision dosing, while the former is under research in application of vancomycin in neonates. This study aimed to develop a PBPK model of vancomycin in adult and pediatric population, and compared it with published PopPK model (priori or Bayesian method) in predicting vancomycin concentration in 230 neonatal patients (postmenstrual age, PMA, 25-45 weeks). The developed PBPK model showed a good fit between predictions and observations. PBPK model and PopPK model are complementary in different clinical scenarios of vancomycin application. The physiological-change description of PBPK model showed a superior advantage in initial dosing optimization. As for subsequent dose optimization, PopPK Bayesian forecasting performed better than the PBPK estimation in neonates. However, initial precision dosing tools for early neonates (with PMA < 36 weeks) still need further exploitation.

Tyrosine hydroxylase expression and neuronal loss in the male and female adolescent ventral tegmental area

Adolescence is a critical period of development characterized by numerous behavioral and neuroanatomical changes. While studies of adolescent neurodevelopment typically compare adolescent age groups with young adults, there are fewer studies that assess developmental trajectories within the adolescent period. In the adolescent prefrontal cortex, some maturational changes take place linearly/chronologically, while others are associated specifically with pubertal onset. The adolescent ventral tegmental area (VTA), a primary source of forebrain dopamine, is relatively understudied during this period. In the present study, dopamine neuron number, total neuron number and tyrosine hydroxylase expression are assessed in the male and female rat VTA at three timepoints: postnatal day(P) 30 (pre-pubertal), P40 (post-pubertal for females, pre-pubertal for males) and P60 (post-pubertal). There was a non-significant trend for a reduction in total VTA neuron number between P30 and P60, but there was a significant reduction in dopamine neuron number across age. The expression of tyrosine hydroxylase did not change with age. However, in a second cohort of subjects, brain tissue was collected pre-pubertal, from recently post-pubertal males and females, and young adults. In this cohort, there was a sex-specific and transient decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase expression in recently post-pubertal males. These results suggest a selective pruning of VTA dopamine cells between early adolescence and young adulthood, while pubertal onset may coincide with a rapid maturation of these neurons. These findings may have implications for psychiatric disorders associated with dopamine dysfunction that tend to manifest during adolescence.

Development and Maturation of the Human Brain, from Infancy to Adolescence.

This chapter describes basic principles and key findings regarding the development and maturation of the human brain, the former referring to the pre-natal and early post-natal periods and the latter concerning childhood and adolescence. In both cases, we focus on brain structure as revealed in vivo with multi-modal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We begin with a few numbers about the human brain and its cellular composition and a brief overview of a number of MRI-based metrics used to characterize age-related variations in grey and white matter. We then proceed with synthesizing current knowledge about developmental and maturational changes in the cerebral cortex (its thickness, surface area, and intra-cortical myelination) and the underlying white matter (volume and structural properties). To facilitate biological interpretations of MRI-derived metrics, we introduce the concept of virtual histology. We conclude the chapter with a few notes about future directions in the study of factors shaping the human brain from conception onwards.

Verification of Career Maturity Changes and Predictive Factors in Male and Female Adolescents Using Growth Mixture Modeling

Verification of Career Maturity Changes and Predictive Factors in Male and Female Adolescents Using Growth Mixture Modeling

Impact of debt maturity and cash holding on investment decisions in Vietnamese companies

The study used data from 520 listed firms between 2004 and 2020 to ascertain the relationship between debt maturity, cash holding, and investment decisions in Vietnamese enterprises. The use of more conservative tactics results from the rise in agency costs. Increased cash holding encouraged businesses to employ internal resources to reduce external financing risks, favorably impacting investment decisions. The negative link between investment decisions and intangible assets indicates increased external funding costs. A high tax shield benefited the investment since it freed up financial flows for productive assets. The robustness test revealed that cash holding positively corresponds with investment decisions in consumer and technology enterprises and that technology firms are incredibly responsive to changes in debt maturity.

Developmental Curves of the Paediatric Brain Using FLAIR MRI Texture Biomarkers.

Purpose: Analysis of FLAIR MRI sequences is gaining momentum in brain maturation studies, and this study aimed to establish normative developmental curves for FLAIR texture biomarkers in the paediatric brain. Methods: A retrospective, single-centre dataset of 465/512 healthy paediatric FLAIR volumes was used, with one pathological volume for proof-of-concept. Participants were included if the MRI was unremarkable as determined by a neuroradiologist. An automated intensity normalization algorithm was used to standardize FLAIR signal intensity across MRI scanners and individuals. FLAIR texture biomarkers were extracted from grey matter (GM), white matter (WM), deep GM, and cortical GM regions. Sex-specific percentile curves were reported and modelled for each tissue type. Correlations between texture and established biomarkers including intensity volume were examined. Biomarkers from the pathological volume were extracted to demonstrate clinical utility of normative curves. Results: This study analyzed 465 FLAIR sequences in children and adolescents (mean age 10.65 ± 4.22 years, range 2-19 years, 220 males, 245 females). In the WM, texture increased to a maximum at around 8 to 10 years, with different trends between females and males in adolescence. In the GM, texture increased over the age range while demonstrating a local maximum at 8 to 10 years. Texture had an inverse relationship with intensity in the WM across all ages. WM and edema in a pathological brain exhibited abnormal texture values outside of the normative growth curves. Conclusion: Normative curves for texture biomarkers in FLAIR sequences may be used to assess brain maturation and microstructural changes over the paediatric age range.

The demand for agricultural credit in central Chile

PurposeThe design of effective policies that increase access to agricultural credit should consider understanding credit constraint farmers’ groups and their response to changes in the credit conditions. To contribute to this understanding, this study surveyed farmers from Chile and classified them into five credit constraint categories discussed in credit literature. In addition, these farmers indicated how they would react to a series of hypothetical conditions related to changing interest rates, loan maturity and grace periods. Their responses were employed to measure credit demand scores (i.e. relative elasticities). Regression tests evaluated how different types of farmers reacted to changing credit conditions.Design/methodology/approachFarmers from Chile were surveyed using a mix of random and convenience sampling. Surveyed farmers were classified into five credit constraint categories proposed by previous research. Farmers rated their demand for credit on a five-point Likert-type scale for hypothetical changes in interest rates, loan maturities and grace periods. Their responses were employed to measure credit demand scores or relative credit elasticities. The study evaluated credit elasticity as a function of farmers’ credit constraint and some control variables using several regressions, including OLS, ordered probit and hierarchical regression.FindingsThe study identified 44% unconstrained nonborrowing farmers, 23% unconstrained borrowers, 14% quantity-constrained, 16% risk-constrained and 3% transaction cost-constrained farmers. Unconstrained borrowers and quantity-constrained farmers responded most to changing interest rates and loan maturity conditions. In addition, unconstrained nonborrowers and risk-constrained farmers were statistically less sensitive to changes in credit conditions than unconstrained borrowers. This finding is significant because, as discussed, unconstrained nonborrowers represent 44% of our sample. Furthermore, risk-constrained farmers were the least sensitive to changes in interest rates and loan maturity across all other credit categories.Practical implicationsThis study gives insights that can guide agribusiness policies to enhance access to credit in developing countries such as Chile. Agricultural credit capital institutions can better target their clientele by identifying farmers’ possible reactions before implementing policy changes to increase access to credit. This study’s credit constraint categorization and the results discussed can guide that identification. For instance, policies directed toward unconstrained borrowing farmers may find positive responses. However, implementing policies targeting the other three groups (unconstrained nonborrowing, risk-constrained and transaction cost-constrained farmers) is more challenging because these farmers are less responsive to changing credit conditions.Originality/valueThis article correlates farmers’ propensity to borrow and credit constraints across five categories of farmers. Prior research using this categorization framework has not identified farmers into the five groups. Furthermore, in addition to interest rate and loan maturity credit demand relative elasticity, this study adds the grace period elasticity, which has not been included in previous studies on agricultural credit.

청소년기 그릿의 잠재집단 분류와 학습자 특성의 예측

The purpose of this study was to examine the number of latent groups and the outcomes of latent group-specific predictor variables and outcome variables according to the development of grit during adolescence (from 8th grade to 12th grade), and to derive implications for the school curriculum. The study analyzed data from 1,624 participants (51.7% male, 48.3% female) over a period of four years from the second (2018) to the third (2021) wave of the Daegu Education Longitudinal Study. The results of the study are as follows: Firstly, grit showed a quadratic developmental trajectory, and latent groups were classified into two based on changes in grit: “high-level maintenance-increasing type” and “low-level maintenance-decreasing type”. Secondly, in terms of the predictability of learner characteristics by latent group based on changes in grit, self-esteem, career maturity, morality, creativity, and sociability were all more likely to belong to the “high-level maintenance-increasing type” group than the “low-level maintenance-decreasing type” group. Based on the research findings, implications for educational curriculum to enhance grit during adolescence were discussed.