Challenge In Community Ecology Research Articles

Using joint species distribution modelling to identify climatic and non‐climatic drivers of Afrotropical ungulate distributions

The relative importance of the different processes that determine the distribution of species and the assembly of communities is a key question in ecology. The distribution of any individual species is affected by a wide range of environmental variables as well as through interactions with other species; the resulting distributions determine the pool of species available to form local communities at fine spatial scales. A challenge in community ecology is that these interactions (e.g. competition, facilitation, etc.) often are not directly measurable. Here, we used hierarchical modelling of species communities (HMSC), a recently developed framework for joint species distribution modelling, to estimate the role of biotic effects alongside environmental factors using latent variables. We investigate the role of these factors determining species distributions in communities of Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla and Proboscidea in the Afrotropics, an area of peak species richness for hoofed mammals. We also calculate pairwise trait dissimilarity between these species, from a mixture of morphological and behavioural traits, and investigate the relationship between dissimilarity and estimated residual co‐occurrence in the model. We find that while ungulate distributions appear to be predominantly determined (~ 70%) by climatic variables, such as precipitation, a substantial proportion of the variance in ungulate species distributions (~ 30%) can also be attributed to modelled latent variables that likely represent a combination of dispersal barriers and biotic factors. Although we find only a weak relationship between residual co‐occurrence and trait dissimilarity, we suggest that our results may show evidence that biotic factors, likely influenced by historical barriers to species dispersal, are important in determining species communities over a continental area. The HMSC framework can be used to provide insight into factors affecting community assembly at broad scales, and to make more powerful predictions about future species distributions as we enter an era of increasing impacts from anthropogenic change.

Metabolic Plasticity Shapes Microbial Communities across a Temperature Gradient.

AbstractA central challenge in community ecology is understanding and predicting the effects of abiotic factors on community assembly. In particular, microbial communities play a central role in the ecosystem, but we do not understand how changing factors like temperature are going to affect community composition or function. In this article, we studied the self-assembly of multiple communities in synthetic environments to understand changes in microbial community composition based on metabolic responses of different functional groups along a temperature gradient. In many microbial communities, different microbial functional groups coexist through the partitioning of carbon sources in an emergent trophic structure (cross-feeding). In this system, respirofermentative bacteria display a preference for the sugars supplied as the only carbon source but secrete secondary carbon sources (organic acids) that are more efficiently consumed by obligate respirators. As a consequence of this trophic structure, the metabolic plasticity of the respirofermenters has downstream consequences for the relative abundance of respirators across temperatures. We found that the effects of different temperatures on microbial composition can largely be described by an increase in fermentation by-products with increasing temperatures from the respirofermentative bacteria. This research highlights the importance of metabolic plasticity and metabolic trade-offs in predicting species interactions and community dynamics across abiotic gradients.

Species–environment sorting explains latitudinal patterns in spatiotemporal β‐diversity for freshwater macroinvertebrates

Understanding how and why β‐diversity varies along latitude is a long‐standing challenge in community ecology and rarely addressed in both space and time. We aimed to explore the spatiotemporal variations in macroinvertebrate β‐diversity and their underlying drivers in eight biogeographic regions covering a substantial latitudinal gradient of more than 40 degrees. By combining β‐diversity partitioning and distance decay of community similarity analyses, we found that subtropical β‐diversity varies more in space relative to variation in time compared with temperate β‐diversity, as we predicted. This is probably because subtropical β‐diversity is shaped by species–environment sorting (SS), caused by habitat heterogeneity and species specialization, more strongly in space relative to time than temperate β‐diversity. Our study highlights the importance of SS in shaping latitudinal gradients of β‐diversity in space and time.

Scouts vs. usurpers: alternative foraging strategies facilitate coexistence between neotropical Cathartid vultures

Understanding how diverse assemblages of scavengers can coexist on shared ecological resources is a fundamental challenge in community ecology. However, current approaches typically focus on behaviour at carcass provisioning sites, missing how important differences in movement behaviour and foraging strategies can facilitate sympatric species coexistence. Such information is particularly important for vultures – obligate scavengers representing the most endangered avian foraging guild. Their loss from ecosystems can trigger trophic cascades, mesopredator release and disease outbreaks. We provide the first‐ever analyses of GPS location data from wild King Vultures Sarcoramphus papa and Greater Yellow‐headed Vultures Cathartes melambrotus, coupled with trait data (from both wild‐living and museum specimens) and visitation data from camera traps deployed at provisioned carcasses, to characterize vulture flight behaviour and strategies in the Peruvian Amazon. We found marked species differences in several key movement characteristics, including: King Vultures having home‐ranges five times larger, average flight heights four times greater and ground speeds 40% faster than those of Greater Yellow‐headed Vultures. Despite these differences, both species flew similar distances each day (on average), probably due to King Vultures taking 50% fewer flights and spending 40% less time in the air per day. Consistent with these patterns, King Vulture body mass was more than double that of the Greater Yellow‐headed Vulture, with a substantially larger hang wing index (a measure of long‐distance flight efficiency). At carcasses, Greater Yellow‐headed Vultures typically arrived first but were rapidly outnumbered by both King and Black Vultures Coragyps atratus. We find that the movement behaviour of obligate apex scavengers in the western Amazon is linked to their ability to coexist – Greater Yellow‐headed Vultures, a smaller stature ‘scouting’ species adapted to fly low, forage early and arrive first at carcasses, are ultimately displaced by larger‐bodied, wider ranging King Vultures at large ephemeral carrion resources. Expansion of future GPS tracking initiatives could facilitate the exploration of direct facultative interactions from animal movement data and give further insight into how diverse communities assemble and interact.

A Spatial Signal of Niche Differentiation in Tropical Forests.

AbstractExplaining diversity in tropical forests remains a challenge in community ecology. Theory tells us that species differences can stabilize communities by reducing competition, while species similarities can promote diversity by reducing fitness differences and thus prolonging the time to competitive exclusion. Combined, these processes may lead to clustering of species such that species are niche differentiated across clusters and share a niche within each cluster. Here, we characterize this partial niche differentiation in a tropical forest in Panama by measuring spatial clustering of woody plants and relating these clusters to local soil conditions. We find that species were spatially clustered and the clusters were associated with specific concentrations of soil nutrients, reflecting the existence of nutrient niches. Species were almost twice as likely to recruit in their own nutrient niche. A decision tree algorithm showed that local soil conditions correctly predicted the niche of the trees with up to 85% accuracy. Iron, zinc, phosphorus, manganese, and soil pH were among the best predictors of species clusters.

Assessment of Herbaceous Plant Composition, Diversity, and Indicator Species in the Juniperus drupacea Forest Openings of the Mountain Parnonas in Greece

A significant challenge in community ecology is the establishment of ecological baselines, which permit the evaluation of the variations in ecological dynamics at different temporal and spatial scales. To our best knowledge, few studies have been conducted in the forest openings of Mt. Parnon to establish a baseline for future monitoring. Hence, a floristic study of the herbaceous plant species composition, diversity, cover, and biomass was conducted in the forest openings of the Mt. Parnon-Natura 2000 Site in Greece to develop an ecological baseline that could be utilized in decision making for conservation and the sustainable use of forest biodiversity and ecosystem services in the forest ecosystem of Mt. Parnon. In the spring season, a thorough floristic survey was performed on Mt. Parnon for two consecutive years, 2021 and 2022. Herbaceous plant composition, diversity, cover, biomass, and plant indicator species (indicator value analysis) in the forest openings of Mt. Parnon were assessed. In the studied area, 63 plant species belonging to 58 genera from 20 families were recorded. The most numerous families were Asteraceae and Poaceae, followed by Fabaceae. Variable plant diversity, herbaceous plant cover, and produced biomass were recorded in different sites. It is noteworthy that some plant species could be regarded as indicators of the sites in the study area [Geranium molle L., Cerastium candidissimum Correns, Vicia villosa Roth, Euphorbia myrsinites L., Odontarrhena muralis (Waldst. & Kit.) Endl., Medicago lupulina L., Lotus corniculatus L., Crepis fraasii Sch. Bip., Bellis sylvestris Cirillo, and Trifolium stellatum L.], and information about these indicators, including Ellenberg type indicator values, is also provided. This study contributes to the understanding of the relevant ecological topics and provides key elements that could be utilized in decision making for the conservation and sustainable use of forest biodiversity and ecosystem services on Mt. Parnon.

Key drivers structuring rotifer communities in ponds: insights into an agricultural landscape.

Understanding the influence of environmental and spatial factors on the structure of aquatic communities remains a major challenge in community ecology. This study aims to identify main drivers of rotifer abundance and diversity in ponds embedded in an intensive agricultural landscape in Northeast Germany. We studied 42 ponds of glacial origin (kettle holes) covering a wide range of environmental parameters. The predominant factors structuring the rotifer metacommunity shifted from abiotic environmental filtering in spring to unstudied factors in autumn, while spatial factors remained less important. Fertilizer-driven salinization, internal nutrient recycling, primary productivity and sediment phosphorus release were the prevalent biogeochemical processes in the ponds. Both fertilizer-driven salinization and primary productivity negatively affected rotifer alpha diversity, and positively affected beta diversity. This impact was lower in forest ponds than in those surrounded by arable fields or grassland. However, rotifer diversity did not significantly differ among land-use categories. Our results indicate that the long-term impact of intensive agriculture in the region and the associated widespread eutrophication overrides the direct influence of land use on rotifer diversity but point to an indirect effect via fertilizer-driven salinization. Furthermore, this study highlights the role of ponds in enhancing regional biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.

Edaphic characteristics drive functional traits distribution in Amazonian floodplain forests

Understanding how environmental factors drive community assembly remains a major challenge in community ecology, especially in biodiverse tropical forests. We investigated how environmental filters affect functional trait distribution in two contrasting types of floodplain forest in the Brazilian Amazon: white-water forest (varzea) and black-water forest (igapo). We placed 40 plots of 625 m2 along a flooding gradient in Central Amazonia and measured for edaphic variables and 11 functional traits related to use of resources and flooding tolerance/avoidance. We assessed functional distribution by calculating community-trait mean values and trait kurtosis. Analysis of community mean trait values showed that nutrient-rich white-water forests favored trees with productive leaves and fast growth, whereas nutrient-poor black-water forests favored trees with nutrient conservation traits and slow growth. Functional diversity was not related to environmental gradients. Edaphic characteristics act, therefore, as a strong environmental filter leading to trait convergence in these floodplain tree communities.

Metacommunity Structure of Stream Insects across Three Hierarchical Spatial scales.

A major challenge in community ecology is to understand the underlying factors driving metacommunity (i.e., a set of local communities connected through species dispersal) dynamics. However, little is known about the effects of varying spatial scale on the relative importance of environmental and spatial (i.e., dispersal related) factors in shaping metacommunities and on the relevance of different dispersal pathways. Using a hierarchy of insect metacommunities at three spatial scales (a small, within‐stream scale, intermediate, among‐stream scale, and large, among‐sub‐basin scale), we assessed whether the relative importance of environmental and spatial factors shaping metacommunity structure varies predictably across spatial scales, and tested how the importance of different dispersal routes vary across spatial scales. We also studied if different dispersal ability groups differ in the balance between environmental and spatial control. Variation partitioning showed that environmental factors relative to spatial factors were more important for community composition at the within‐stream scale. In contrast, spatial factors (i.e., eigenvectors from Moran's eigenvector maps) relative to environmental factors were more important at the among‐sub‐basin scale. These results indicate that environmental filtering is likely to be more important at the smallest scale with highest connectivity, while dispersal limitation seems to be more important at the largest scale with lowest connectivity. Community variation at the among‐stream and among‐sub‐basin scales were strongly explained by geographical and topographical distances, indicating that overland pathways might be the main dispersal route at the larger scales among more isolated sites. The relative effect of environmental and spatial factors on insect communities varied between low and high dispersal ability groups; this variation was inconsistent among three hierarchical scales. In sum, our study indicates that spatial scale, connectivity, and dispersal ability jointly shape stream metacommunities.

Floristic Composition, Diversity, and Biomass of a Protected Tropical Evergreen Forest Belize

A challenge in community ecology is the development of ecosystem baselines, allowing the assessment of the variation in the ecological dynamics through different temporal and spatial scales. To our...

Grazing intensity enhances spatial aggregation of dominant species in a desert steppe.

Understanding how grazing activity drives plant community structure or the distribution of specific species in a community remains a major challenge in community ecology. The patchiness or spatial aggregation of specific species can be quantified by analyzing their relative coordinates in the community. Using variance and geostatistical analysis methods, we examined the quantitative characteristics and spatial distribution of Stipa breviflora in a desert steppe in northern China under four different grazing intensities (no grazing, NG, light grazing, LG, moderate grazing, MG, and heavy grazing, HG) at three small spatial scales (10 × 10 cm, 20 × 20 cm, 25 × 25 cm). We found that grazing significantly increased cover, density, and proportion in standing crop of S. breviflora, but decreased height. The spatial distribution of S. breviflora was strongly dependent upon the sampling unit and grazing intensity. The patchiness of S. breviflora reduced with sampling scale, and spatial distribution of S. breviflora was mainly determined by structural factors. The intact clusters of S. breviflora were more fragmented with increasing grazing intensity and offspring clusters spread out from the center of the parent plant. These findings suggest that spatial aggregation can enhance the ability of S. breviflora to tolerate grazing and that smaller isolated clusters are beneficial to the survival of this dominant species under heavy grazing.

Assessing functional evenness with the FEve index: A word of warning

Functional diversity has recently become a key challenge in community ecology due to its major importance for the understanding of ecosystem processes such as ecosystem productivity, the resilience of ecosystems to disturbances or invasions and regulation of the flux of matter. Some authors have argued that functional diversity can be divided into three independent components: functional richness, functional evenness and functional divergence. Currently, the evenness component of functional diversity is mainly assessed on the basis of the FEve index of Villéger et al. (2008) that quantifies the regularity of interspecies distances and the homogeneity of species abundances. Here, we demonstrate that the FEve index could give values that are not consistent with its claimed properties, and we illustrate this inconsistency with various specific examples. We highlight the fact that the FEve index can give values close to 1, although all species are not regularly spaced and have not the same abundance. We also demonstrate that two communities could have the same FEve index value although they differ in terms of abundance distribution. We assume that these characteristics are due to the fact that FEve index combines in a single value two different components: functional distance and distributions of species abundances. Finally, we propose an alternative solution to overcome the problem of these drawbacks, and thus achieve a more complete and accurate view of the functional evenness of communities.

Estimating the effect of the reorganization of interactions on the adaptability of species to changing environments

A major challenge in community ecology is to understand how species respond to environmental changes. Previous studies have shown that the reorganization of interactions among co-occurring species can modulate their chances to adapt to novel environmental conditions. Moreover, empirical evidence has shown that these ecological dynamics typically facilitate the persistence of groups of species rather than entire communities. However, so far, we have no systematic methodology to identify those groups of species with the highest or lowest chances to adapt to new environments through a reorganization of their interactions. Yet, this could prove extremely valuable for developing new conservation strategies. Here, we introduce a theoretical framework to estimate the effect of the reorganization of interactions on the adaptability of a group of species, within a community, to novel environmental conditions. We introduce the concept of the adaptation space of a group of species based on a feasibility analysis of a population dynamics model. We define the adaptation space of a group as the set of environmental conditions that can be made compatible with its persistence thorough the reorganization of interactions among species within the group. The larger the adaptation space of a group, the larger its likelihood to adapt to a novel environment. We show that the interactions in the community outside a group can act as structural constraints and be used to quantitatively compare the size of the adaptation space among different groups of species within a community. To test our theoretical framework, we perform a data analysis on several pairs of natural and artificially perturbed ecological communities. Overall, we find that the groups of species present in both control and perturbed communities are among the ones with the largest adaptation space. We believe that the results derived from our framework point out towards new directions to understand and estimate the adaptability of species to changing environments.

Host Genotype and Nitrogen Form Shape the Root Microbiome of Pinus radiata

A central challenge in community ecology is understanding the role that phenotypic variation among genotypes plays in structuring host-associated communities. While recent studies have investigated the relationship between plant genotype and the composition of soil microbial communities, the effect of genotype-by-environment interactions on the plant microbiome remains unclear. In this study, we assessed the influence of tree genetics (G), nitrogen (N) form and genotype-by-environment interaction (G x N) on the composition of the root microbiome. Rhizosphere communities (bacteria and fungi) and root-associated fungi (including ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic guilds) were characterised in two genotypes of Pinus radiata with contrasting physiological responses to exogenous organic or inorganic N supply. Genotype-specific responses to N form influenced the composition of the root microbiome. Specifically, (1) diversity and composition of rhizosphere bacterial and root-associated fungal communities differed between genotypes that had distinct responses to N form, (2) shifts in the relative abundance of individual taxa were driven by the main effects of N form or host genotype and (3) the root microbiome of the P. radiata genotype with the most divergent growth responses to organic and inorganic N was most sensitive to differences in N form. Our results show that intraspecific variation in tree response to N form has significant consequences for the root microbiome of P. radiata, demonstrating the importance of genotype-by-environment interactions in shaping host-associated communities.

Disentangling the contributions of dispersal limitation, ecological drift, and ecological filtering to wild bee community assembly

AbstractThe species composition within communities is highly dependent on the rate of species immigration and whether immigrating species possess the functional traits required by the prevailing environmental conditions. Once established, random fluctuations in birth and death rates may reduce the diversity of ecologically equivalent species if local populations are not replenished by immigrating individuals. Consequently, three key processes drive community assembly: dispersal limitation, ecological filtering, and ecological drift. However, disentangling the relative contribution of these processes remains a challenge in community ecology. We used a binomial generalized linear mixed model to test whether the occurrences of solitary bees within 46 communities in southeast Norway were driven by (1) dispersal limitation, that is, the geographic distance to the nearest site where conspecifics occurred; (2) ecological filtering, that is, if forb species richness selected for non‐Ericaceae‐affiliated species; and (3) ecological drift, that is, if small, isolated communities were dominated by regionally common species. The regression slopes from the model for each potential driver of community composition were compared with those expected under a null model, in which species were treated as ecologically equivalent. Both dispersal limitation and ecological filtering influenced the probability of species occurring within communities. The occurrence of species decreased with elevation, and this relationship depended on the relative commonness of species and their floral preferences. For non‐Ericaceae‐affiliated species, the patterns of occurrence mirrored that expected under the null (neutral) model, resulting in the same patterns as would be expected under ecological drift. In contrast, the response of Ericaceae‐affiliated species differed from what would be expected from the null model. Our results also indicate that processes leading to neutral dynamics in species compositions drive a large part of the gradient in species richness in Norwegian bee communities. These processes seem related to sampling effects so that large and interconnected communities have a higher probability of including regionally rare species than small, isolated communities. Our results suggest that targeting habitats—where the influence of ecological filtering is expected to be greater than that of neutral dynamics—can increase the success of habitat management plans aimed at promoting rare species.

Effect of different root endophytic fungi on plant community structure in experimental microcosms.

Understanding the effects of root‐associated microbes in explaining plant community patterns represents a challenge in community ecology. Although typically overlooked, several lines of evidence point out that nonmycorrhizal, root endophytic fungi in the Ascomycota may have the potential to drive changes in plant community ecology given their ubiquitous presence, wide host ranges, and plant species‐specific fitness effects. Thus, we experimentally manipulated the presence of root endophytic fungal species in microcosms and measured its effects on plant communities. Specifically, we tested whether (1) three different root endophyte species can modify plant community structure; (2) those changes can also modified the way plant respond to different soil types; and (3) the effects are modified when all the fungi are present. As a model system, we used plant and fungal species that naturally co‐occur in a temperate grassland. Further, the soil types used in our experiment reflected a strong gradient in soil texture that has been shown to drive changes in plant and fungal community structure in the field. Results showed that each plant species responded differently to infection, resulting in distinct patterns of plant community structure depending on the identity of the fungus present. Those effects depended on the soil type. For example, large positive effects due to presence of the fungi were able to compensate for less nutrients levels in one soil type. Further, host responses when all three fungi were present were different from the ones observed in single fungal inoculations, suggesting that endophyte–endophyte interactions may be important in structuring plant communities. Overall, these results indicate that plant responses to changes in the species identity of nonmycorrhizal fungal community species and their interactions can modify plant community structure.

Evaluating broad scale patterns among related species using resource experiments in tropical hummingbirds.

A challenge in community ecology is connecting biogeographic patterns with local scale observations. In Neotropical hummingbirds, closely related species often co-occur less frequently than expected (overdispersion) when compared to a regional species pool. While this pattern has been attributed to interspecific competition, it is important to connect these findings with local scale mechanisms of coexistence. We measured the importance of the presence of competitors and the availability of resources on selectivity at experimental feeders for Andean hummingbirds along a wide elevation gradient. Selectivity was measured as the time a bird fed at a feeder with a high sucrose concentration when presented with feeders of both low and high sucrose concentrations. Resource selection was measured using time-lapse cameras to identity which floral resources were used by each hummingbird species. We found that the increased abundance of preferred resources surrounding the feeder best explained increased species selectivity, and that related hummingbirds with similar morphology chose similar floral resources. We did not find strong support for direct agonism based on differences in body size or phylogenetic relatedness in predicting selectivity. These results suggest closely related hummingbird species have overlapping resource niches, and that the intensity of interspecific competition is related to the abundance of those preferred resources. If these competitive interactions have negative demographic effects, our results could help explain the pattern of phylogenetic overdispersion observed at regional scales.

β-diversity of deep-sea holothurians and asteroids along a bathymetric gradient (NE Atlantic)

ABSTRACT: Measuring and understanding patterns of β-diversity remain major challenges in community ecology. Recently, β-diversity has been shown to consist of 2 distinct components: (1) spatial turnover and (2) species loss leading to nestedness. Both components structure deep-sea macrofaunal assemblages but vary in importance among taxa and ocean basins and with energy availability. Here, we present the first evidence for turnover and nestedness along a bathymetric gradient in 2 major megafaunal taxa, holothurians and asteroids. Turnover is the dominant component of β-diversity throughout bathyal and abyssal zones in both taxa, despite major differences in β-diversity and trophic composition. High spatial turnover suggests a role for evolutionary adaptation to environmental circumstances within depth bands. This pattern differs fundamentally from those in some macrofaunal groups in low-energy environments where abyssal nestedness is high and diversity low, with diversity maintained partly by source-sink dynamics.

Interactions among herbivory, climate, topography and plant age shape riparian willow dynamics in northern Yellowstone National Park, USA

Summary Understanding how the environmental context modifies the strength of trophic interactions within food webs forms a central challenge in community ecology. Here, we demonstrate the necessity of considering the influence of climate, landscape heterogeneity and demographics for understanding trophic interactions in a well‐studied food web in Yellowstone National Park, USA. We studied riparian willow (Salix spp.) establishment and stem growth reconstructed from tree rings on the northern range of Yellowstone over a 30‐year period that included the reintroduction of a top predator, the grey wolf (Canis lupus). We used climate variables (annual precipitation, stream flow and growing season length), herbivore abundance and landscape descriptors (elevation and topographic wetness index) to predict establishment and growth processes through time before and after the reintroduction of wolves. We fitted Bayesian hierarchical models to establishment data and time series of individual stem heights from 1980 to 2008. Explaining variability in establishment required models with stream flow, annual precipitation and elk abundance. Climate, trophic and landscape covariates interacted with stem age to determine stem height and growth rate through time. Growth rates of most stems ages (2+) declined after the reintroduction of wolves. However, stem growth rates naturally declined with age, and the decline we observed was coincident with faster growth rates for the youngest stems. Mean stem heights at age have remained relatively stable through time for most age classes. Estimated effects of landscape topography had approximately the same magnitude of effect on stem growth rate at age as elk abundance. Synthesis. We show that the effects of modification of a food web cannot be predicted by studying trophic dynamics in isolation. No single driver explained patterns of willow establishment and growth over the past three decades in Yellowstone. Instead, interactions among trophic forces, interannual climate variability and landscape topography together shaped how the ecosystem responded to perturbations. Top‐down effects of ungulates on riparian woody vegetation must be considered in the context of plant age, and climate and landscape heterogeneity.

The effect of predation pressure and predator adaptive foraging on the relative importance of consumptive and non‐consumptive predator net effects in a freshwater model system

An important challenge in community ecology is identifying the functional characteristics capable of predicting the nature and strength of predator effects on food webs. We developed an individual‐based model, based on a shallow lake model system, to evaluate the total, consumptive, and non‐consumptive indirect effect that predators have on basal resources when the predators differ in their foraging types (active adaptive foraging or sedentary foraging). Overall, both predator types caused similar total indirect effects on lower trophic levels. However, the nature net effects of predators diverged between predator foraging types. Active predators caused larger non‐consumptive effects, relative to the total indirect effect, irrespective of predation pressure levels. On the other hand, sedentary predators caused larger non‐consumptive effects for lower predation pressure levels, but consumptive effects became more important as predation pressure increased. Our simulations showed that the reliance on a particular mechanism driving consumer–resource interactions is altered by predator foraging behavior and highlight the importance of both prey and predator foraging behaviors to predict the causes and consequences of cascading effects observed in food webs.