Chalcolithic Occupation Research Articles

Late Chalcolithic Occupation at Tell er-Ramadi (Syria): Results of the 2004-2006 Salvage Excavations

Abstract. This paper presents the results of the 2004-2006 salvage operations conducted at Tell er-Ramadi, located along the west bank of the lower Syrian Euphrates River. Ramadi contains well-preserved deposits dating to the 4th millennium BC (Late Chalcolithic or LC period), with the most well-preserved sequence dating to the later part of the LC2 to LC4. During the initial phase of occupation, the site was occupied by northern Mesopotamian groups, followed by the gradual appearance of southern Mesopotamian material culture. This interaction ultimately culminated in both northern and southern groups participating in collective labour feasts, taking place within the context of crop harvest, wool collection and spinning. Algaze (1993) originally classified Ramadi as an Uruk “station”, a type of small, isolated Uruk settlement that facilitated movement of goods towards the Uruk heartland. This work helps understand how such stations may have operated on an intraregional level.

Long-term construction of vineyard landscapes in the Ebro Valley: The deserted village of Torrentejo (Basque Country, Spain)

Cultural landscapes are the result of human societies interacting with their environment, which is reflected in the onset and evolution of social practices such as settlement and agricultural production. This paper discusses the results of a transdisciplinary research program carried out on the vineyard landscape of the Rioja Alavesa district, one of the main wine-producing regions of Spain, focusing on the deserted village of Torrentejo (Basque Country, Spain). The study of archival records, combined with extensive archaeological survey and excavation, as well as the intensive analysis of geoarchaeological core samples, permitted the reconstruction of a long sequence of human settlement and agricultural practices extending over ~4000 years. The oldest documented records refer to a Chalcolithic occupation, developed on a buried gypsisol and possibly related to the climatic event at 4.2 ka BP. After a long hiatus, four phases of landscape transformation were documented above this Chalcolithic occupation: (1) the formation of a nucleated village in the Early Middle Ages, represented by the construction of a terraced agricultural landscape, and its passage under the control of different seigneurial powers over the High Middle Ages; (2) the abandonment of the village during the Late Middle Ages and the subsequent concentration of settlement in the charted town of Bastida; (3) a complete reorganisation and expansion of the local terraced systems in the 18th–19th centuries, in a context of specialisation and commercialisation of agricultural production; and (4) present-day mechanisation and capitalisation. These results therefore offer an interesting overview on the complexity and diversity of the historical trends that lie beneath the vineyard landscape of Torrentejo, proving the value of interdisciplinary research approaches for the investigation of the role of human settlement and agriculture in the formation and evolution of agricultural landscapes.

Geochemistry, luminescence and innovative dose rate determination of a Chalcolithic calcite-rich negative feature

An interdisciplinary approach comprising archaeological, chemical, mineralogical, and luminescence data was applied to a better understanding of the fill dynamic and chronologies of a calcite-rich negative archaeological feature from Southern Portugal. This work aims to contribute to the assessment of the human involvement in the backfilling actions of a negative archaeological feature from a Chalcolithic site, thus better defining the moments of its destruction and/or abandonment. There are well-known limitations of luminescence dating of calcite-rich materials, particularly in the dose rate determination. In this work, a proposal of two innovative protocols to determine the dose rate of calcite-rich contexts is discussed. A clear improvement of the dose rate estimation was obtained by using the “radionuclide weighed” protocol. The comprehensive used methodologies enabled to define the infill phases and the sources of the infill materials. The luminescence profiling studies were also useful to describe the infill processes, highlighting their discontinuity and pointing to different deposition rates. The luminescence ages obtained, when using the “radionuclide weighed” protocol proposed in this work, are closer to the archaeological evidence of a Chalcolithic occupation.

Modelling landscape transformation at the Chalcolithic Tripolye mega-site of Maidanetske (Ukraine): Wood demand and availability

Wood was a crucial resource for prehistoric societies, for instance, as timber for house construction and as fuel. In the case of the exceptionally large Chalcolithic Tripolye ‘mega-sites’ in central Ukraine, thousands of burnt buildings, indicating huge population agglomerations, hint at such a massive use of wood that it raises questions about the carrying capacity of the sensitive forest-steppe environment. In this contribution, we investigate the wood demand for the mega-site of Maidanetske (3990–3640 BCE), as reconstructed based on wood charcoal data, wood imprints on daub and the archaeo-magnetometry-based settlement plan. We developed a regional-scale model with a fuzzy approach and applied it in order to simulate the potential distribution and extent of woodlands before and after Chalcolithic occupation. The model is based upon the reconstructed ancient land surface, soil information derived from cores and the potential natural woodland cover reconstructed based on the requirements of the prevailing ancient tree species. Landscape scenarios derived from the model are contrasted and cross-checked with the archaeological empirical data. We aim to understand whether the demand for wood triggered the site development. Did deforestation and consequent soil degradation and lack of resources initiate the site’s abandonment? Or, alternatively, did the inhabitants develop sustainable woodland management strategies? Starting from the case study of Maidanetske, this study provides estimates of the extent of human impact on both carrying capacity and landscape transformations in the sensitive transitional forest-steppe environment. Overall, the results indicate that the inhabitants of the Chalcolithic site did not suffer from a significant shortage in the wood resource at any time of inhabitation in the contexts of the different scenarios provided by the model. An exception is given by the phase of maximum house construction and population within a scenario of dry climatic conditions.

Did the Romans introduce the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) into the Iberian Peninsula?

New finds of bones of the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), one from Portugal and one from Spain, were directly 14C dated to the first century AD. While the Portuguese specimen was found without connection to the Chalcolithic occupation of the Pedra Furada cave where it was recovered, the Spanish find, collected in the city of Mérida, comes from a ritual pit that also contained three human and 40 dog burials. The finds reported here show that the Egyptian mongoose, contrary to the traditional and predominant view, did not first arrive in the Iberian Peninsula during the Muslim occupation of Iberia. Instead, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the species was first introduced by the Romans, or at least sometime during the Roman occupation of Hispania. Therefore, radiocarbon dating of new archaeological finds of bones of the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) in the Iberian Peninsula push back the confirmed presence of the species in the region by approximately eight centuries, as the previously oldest dated record is from the ninth century. With these new dates, there are now a total of four 14C dated specimens of Egyptian mongooses from the Iberian Peninsula, and all of these dates fall within the last 2000years. This offers support for the hypothesis that the presence of the species in Iberia is due to historical introductions and is at odds with a scenario of natural sweepstake dispersal across the Straits of Gibraltar in the Late Pleistocene (126,000-11,700years ago), recently proposed based on genetic data.

Scales of impact: Settlement history and landscape change in the Gordion Region, central Anatolia

The expansion of agriculture in the Near East during the middle Holocene significantly altered the physical landscape. However, the relationship between the scale of agriculture and the magnitude and timing of the environmental impacts is not well known. The Gordion Regional Survey provides a novel dataset to compare settlement density during archaeological periods to rates of environmental disruption. Sediment samples from alluvial cores directly date the environmental disruption, which can be matched to period-specific settlement intensities in the watershed as constructed from archaeological survey ceramics. Degradation rates rose sharply within a millennium of the earliest Chalcolithic occupation. Early Bronze Age (EBA) land use induced the greatest rates of environmental degradation, although settlement density was relatively low on the landscape. The degradation rate subsequently decreased to one-third its early peak by the Iron Age, even as settlement intensity climbed. This trajectory reveals how complex interaction effects can amplify or subdue the responses of the landscape–land use system. Prior to settlement, landscape soil reservoirs were highly vulnerable, easily tipped by early agricultural expansion. Subsequent reduced rates of erosion are tied both to changes in sociopolitical organization and to depletion of the vulnerable soil supply.

A bioarchaeological investigation of three late Chalcolithic pits at Ovçular Tepesi (Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan)

Socio-economic organisation, subsistence strategies and environmental exploitation still remain largely open questions for the Late Chalcolithic period (ca. 4500–3500 BC) in southern Caucasus even though they are of prime importance for understanding the development of post-Neolithic societies in these semi-arid and mountainous areas. Interdisciplinary bioarchaeological research can, however, provide valuable new insights into these issues. In the Late Chalcolithic occupation layers at Ovçular Tepesi (Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, Azerbaijan), the fills of pits, composed mainly of domestic refuse, proved to contain the richest and most diverse assemblages of biological remains at the site. These remains, retrieved by the use of flotation and sieving techniques, therefore constitute ideal assemblages for understanding subsistence strategies and the exploitation of natural resources. It is shown here that the agricultural economy at Late Chalcolithic Ovçular Tepesi was based mainly on the cultivation of cereals and pulses and the herding of sheep and goat. The river and its surroundings provided wood fuel and fish. The results of the bioarchaeological study further suggest that the Late Chalcolithic village was occupied permanently as shown by the development of commensal populations of small mammals.

The Chalcolithic in the Central Highlands of Palestine: A Reassessment Based on a New Examination of Khirbet es-Sauma'a

Major formative socio-economic changes occurred during the Chalcolithic period (c. 4500-3600 BC) in the southern Levant, including the beginnings of metallurgy, intensified craft production, new mortuary practices and elaborated iconographic and symbolic expression. Although a mosaic of regional groups are located within discrete geophysical zones, much of our knowledge of these transformations derives from survey and excavation in a few core areas, in particular the northern Negev, the Jordan Valley and the Golan. Our understanding of Chalcolithic occupation and use of other regional zones remains largely cursory, particularly in the north-central highlands and the marginal zones of the south and east. In this article we suggest that the settlement expansion documented in areas such as the northern Negev took place in other regions, such as the southern highlands and central Judean Hills. Further, this expansion seems to occur earlier than previously thought. Khirbet es-Sauma'a, situated in the central hill country just south of Tell el-Ful, was investigated by Father Joseph Nasralleh in the 1930s and shown to date to the Chalcolithic period. A wealth of flint implements were recovered from the site and promptly published, but, unfortunately, Nasralleh excluded other material culture, including the pottery assemblage. Based on repeated visits to the site and presentation of unpublished material, we suggest Khirbet es-Saumaca represents one of many sites signalling the exploitation of the hill country.

Chalcolithic Settlements in the Western Samaria Foothills

This paper presents new data on the history of the Chalcolithic settlement system in western Samaria and offers a picture of the Chalcolithic occupation of the country's highlands. Pottery assemblages found in the area suggest that clay vessels were locally produced. Given the particular assemblage types it can now be assumed that they served sedentary agrarian populations.

Chalcolithic Settlements in the Western Samaria Foothills

This paper presents new data on the history of the Chalcolithic settlement system in western Samaria and offers a picture of the Chalcolithic occupation of the country's highlands. Pottery assemblages found in the area suggest that clay vessels were locally produced. Given the particular assemblage types it can now be assumed that they served sedentary agrarian populations.

Tell Afis: the Late Chalcolithic Painted Ware

Excavations at Tell Afis (north-western Syria) 1991–1997, have revealed a long sequence of Late Chalcolithic occupation (Levels 18–26). This article presents an analytical study of the painted pottery from this phase, focusing on classification, technology, and decorative patterns. Three groups in diachronic sequence are identified in relation to the archaeological contexts, and show a technological development. The painted pottery from Tell Afis, with the presence of its own characteristic elements, like the adoption of painted motifs from the Late Ubaid tradition, stresses the cultural identity of this site and its region in the fourth millennium, as yet poorly documented by archaeological evidence.

Spindle Whorls, Gender, and Ethnicity at Late Chalcolithic Hacinebi Tepe

Hacinebi Tepe, a small site along the Euphrates River in southern Turkey, has two major phases of occupation during the Late Chalcolithic period (4th millennium B.C.). The earlier phase is a local Late Chalcolithic occupation, and the second phase shows evidence of contact with Uruk Mesopotamia. The spindle whorls from both phases were analyzed and compared. The results indicate that fine- and medium-weight threads of wool and possibly goat hair were being spun in both phases. A comparison of Hacinebi's spindle whorls with three southern samples suggests that Mesopotamian women, and therefore entire Mesopotamian households, were not present at Hacinebi during the contact phase. The process of spinning is discussed with emphasis on its archaeological implications. Included are a discussion of the critical attributes of spindle whorls (what they can tell us and why), some criteria to distinguish spindle whorls from other pierced objects, and an accurate method (confirmed by experiment) for estimating the complete weights of partial spindle whorls.

The Vasilikos Valley and the Chalcolithic Period in Cyprus

Information concerning the Chalcolithic occupation of the Vasilikos valley has been derived principally from excavations at Kalavasos-Ayious and from the field survey of the valley. Limited data were also obtained by excavation at Kalavasos-Tenta. At Ayious no standing structures were found, only a series of pits of varied shapes, sizes, and purposes. The site probably represents a settlement of lightly built huts, most traces of which have been lost through erosion. A complex of pits and associated subterranean tunnels is of uncertain purpose. Small pits were also found in the Tenta excavations. The field survey revealed Early, Late, and probably Middle Chalcolithic sites in most of the valley. The density of settlements is not great, but uncertainty exists concerning the attribution of certain pottery types to a specific phase. The Chalcolithic occupation of the valley began as early as in western Cyprus, but the continuity of occupation throughout the period remains to be established.

New light on the prehistoric cultures of Central India

Abstract The excavations at Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh, India) have revealed traces of earlier chalcolithic occupation in Central India than was previously known, beginning well before 2000 B.C. The oldest (Kayatha Culture) is represented by three new ceramic styles. Copper implements and bangles and two necklaces of semi‐precious stones were found. Over forty sites of this new culture have so far been discovered in the Chambal Valley. The second culture (Ahar Culture) was well known in south‐east Rajasthan, but its existence in Central India has been brought to light for the first time at Kayatha. An important feature of this culture is the terracotta bull figurines, both naturalistic and stylized, the latter being unique. The last chalcolithic culture at Kayatha is the well defined Malwa culture, with similar figurines occuring in a Malwa context for the first time.