Rusa Deer Research Articles

Water consumption by rusa deer (Cervus timorensis) stags as influenced by different types of food

AbstractDuring winter in southern Queensland, eight rusa deer stags aged 4 years were given ad libitum lucerne (Medicago sativa) hay and confined in individual metabolism pens for 26 days. Stags ate 2·04 kg dry matter (DM) per day and drank 6·4 kg water per day, while the drinking water: food DM ratio was 3·3 l/kg. In experiment 2, seven rusa stags were given ad libitum lucerne hay or oaten (Avena spp.) hay with or without barley grain supplementation (200 g/day) for 56 days (four periods). This experiment was conducted from 26 July to 19 September 2001, when the stags were exhibiting the behaviour characteristic of the rut. Rusa stags ate 1·19 and 1·17 kg DM per day of lucerne and oaten hay respectively. Rusa stags given oaten hay drank slightly more water than those that received lucerne hay (5·34 and 4·47 kg/day, respectively). The drinking water: food DM ratios were 3·81 and 4·67 kg/kg for lucerne and oaten hay, respectively. Barley grain supplementation (200 g/day) had no influence on total food or water intakes of the rusa stags.

The diets of introduced rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa) in a native sclerophyll forest and a native rainforest of New Caledonia

New Caledonia has an exceptionally diverse and unique flora, and there is growing concern about the impacts of introduced wild rusa deer on native forests. The diets of free‐ranging rusa deer from two native forest sites were studied using rumen content analysis. Samples (n = 61) from a sclerophyll forest site consisted principally of graminoids (64.6 ± 4.4% dry weight), mainly native grass, but the proportion of woody species increased during the dry season. In the rumen samples from the rainforest site (n = 56), woody species were the predominant plants (61.9 ± 3.7% dry weight), and the composition of the diet was more constant across seasons. Most of the food items found could not be identified to species level, but it is estimated that native plants represent 40–60% of rusa deer diet. Although more work is needed to assess diet preferences and impacts of rusa deer, we suggest that they represent a potentially important threat to some native plant species in New Caledonia.

Characterization of Streptococcus bovis from the rumen of the dromedary camel and Rusa deer.

Isolation and characterization of Streptococcus bovis from the dromedary camel and Rusa deer. Bacteria were isolated from the rumen contents of four camels and two deer fed lucerne hay by culturing on the semi-selective medium MRS agar. Based on Gram morphology and RFLP analysis seven isolates, MPR1, MPR2, MPR3, MPR4, MPR5, RD09 and RD11 were selected and putatively identified as Streptococcus. The identity of these isolates was later confirmed by comparative DNA sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene with the homologous sequence from S. bovis strains, JB1, C14b1, NCFB2476, SbR1, SbR7 and Sb5, from cattle and sheep, and the Streptococcus equinus strain NCD01037T. The percentage similarity amongst all strains was >99%, confirming the identification of the camel isolates as S. bovis. The strains were further characterized by their ability to utilize a range of carbohydrates, the production of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and lactate and the determination of the doubling time in basal medium 10 supplemented with glucose. All the isolates produced l-lactate as a major fermentation end product, while four of five camel isolates produced VFA. The range of carbohydrates utilized by all the strains tested, including those from cattle and sheep were identical, except that all camel isolates and the deer isolate RD11 were additionally able to utilize arabinose. Streptococcus bovis was successfully isolated from the rumen of camels and deer, and shown by molecular and biochemical characterization to be almost identical to S. bovis isolates from cattle and sheep. Streptococcus bovis is considered a key lactic acid producing bacterium from the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, and has been implicated as a causative agent of lactic acidosis. This study is the first report of the isolation and characterization of S. bovis from the dromedary camel and Rusa deer, and suggests a major contributive role of this bacterium to fermentative acidosis.

Low levels of genetic variation within introduced Javan rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa) in Australia

Javan rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa) is one of six introduced wild deer species in Australia. The largest population is located in the Royal National Park (RNP), New South Wales, Australia. Although the deer are considered a pest in certain areas, they are also commercially valuable. Using molecular markers we aimed to characterise the level of genetic diversity within the RNP population and identify a possible genetic bottleneck associated with the introduction of seven founding individuals. We also aimed to identify appropriate polymorphic microsatellite loci that could assist in commercial breeding programmes and wild population management in Australia. The results indicate that Javan rusa deer from the RNP (n=37) had an average (±SE) of only 2.29±0.095 alleles/locus, which is substantially lower than that reported in source populations from New Caledonia (7.60±0.933 alleles/locus). These data combined with the presence of ‘genetic reduction signatures’ (P<0.001) indicate that this population has experienced a population bottleneck possibly at the time of establishment in Australia. Despite low allelic diversity, the large suite of identified polymorphic loci (n=24) shows promise for applications in population genetics, including parentage analysis (total parentage exclusion 0.944) within Australia. These data will contribute significantly to improving commercial breeding programmes and possibly to wild population management plans.

KARAKTERISTIK GENETIK PADA FAMILI CERVIDAE (Cervus unicolor, Cervus timorensis, dan Axis kuhlii) BERDASARKAN 12SrRNA mtDNA

Genetic analysis from three species of Indonesia Cervidae (sambar deer, Cervus unicolor; rusa deer, Cervus timorensis; and Bawean deer, Axis kuhlii) was conducted to analyze their relationship. Tissues and blood from twelve sambar deer, one rusa deer and three Bawean deer were collected and analyzed for 12SrRNA using Primer forward (L1091) and reverse (H1478). The results indicated the amplication of mtDNA were 389 base nucleotide. There were 22 polimorphic sites, which were dominated by transition and gave 9 haplotypes that were 5 in sambar deer, 1 in rusa deer and 3 in Bawean deer.

Consumption and Digestion of Forages by Male Rusa (Cervus timorensis russa) Deer-the Effects of Castration and Season

In a split-unit design, 12 Javan rusa (Cervus tinzorensis russa) stags (6 castrated and 6 entire) were used to investigate seasonal (winter, spring and summer) effects on intake, digestibility of food constituents, volatile fatty acid profile, and nitrogen retention, which given lucerne (Medicago sativa) or rhodes grass (Chloris guyana) hays. Entire stags ate 9% more dry matter (DM) than castrates (p<0.05). Both castrated and entire stags exhibited seasonal changes in DM intake, these being higher (p<0.05) in winter (62.3g/kg W0.75) than spring (56.9 g/kg W0.75) or summer (55.3 g/kg W0.75). Intakes of lucerne hay (211 g protein/kg DM) were significantly higher than of rhodes grass hay (49 g protein/kg DM) in all seasons (p<0.05). Digestibilities of DM (0.58), neutral detergent fibre (0.59) and acid detergent fibre (0.47) were similar between castrates and entires. DM digestibility was higher (p<0.0001) for lucerne (0.66) than rhodes grass (0.55), and was higher (p<0.05) in winter (0.60) than spring (0.58) or summer (0.57). The ruminal acetate concentrations were higher (p<0.001) in spring than summer (78 and 73 molar % respectively). Apparent digestibility of protein was significantly less (p<0.0001) for rhodes grass (0.37) than lucerne (0.75). N retention was positive for lucerne (15.2 g/d) but negative for rhodes grass (-2.8 g/d) (p<0.0001), and was higher (p<0.001) in summer (12.0 g/d) than spring (4.3 g/d) or winter (2.4 g/d). The tropical rusa deer exhibits seasonal variations in feed intake, food constituent digestibilities, VFA profile and N retention. Castration did not alter these traits. The results do not support the view that rusa deer can thrive on low-quality pastures. The productivity and commercial exploitation of rusa deer could be optimised if they are given high- protein feed during spring and summer.

The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia

Deer species (fallow, red, sambar, chital, rusa and hog deer) have formed wild populations in Australian habitats ranging from arid woodland to rainforest and are a growing management issue. Data were obtained via an Australia-wide land-manager survey that collected information on the liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia. It is estimated that there are 218 wild deer herds in Australia with 7% of these herds originating from acclimatisation society releases, 35% from deer farm escapes/releases and 58% from translocations (deliberate releases). On average, herds released by acclimatisation societies are estimated to be 107 years old, herds that have escaped from (or been released from) deer farms are 9 years old, and transplanted herds are 6 years old. It is estimated that Australia currently has 200 000 wild deer, with 85% of these deer originally released by acclimatisation societies, 6% through escapes/releases from deer farms and 9% by translocation. Poor knowledge of the impacts of wild deer by land managers and the absence of consistent legislation governing the management of farmed and wild deer are factors that have exacerbated deliberate releases of deer and the escape of deer from farms. Management strategies for wild deer in Australia need to be developed by land managers to address the escape and release of deer from farms, the illegal translocation of deer into the wild and the management of existing wild deer herds.

Animal translocation:long-term human influences on the vertebrate zoogeography of Australasia (natural dispersal versus ethnophoresy)

A proposed new term ethnophoresy defines a Late Quaternary biological process that occurs when organisms are able to breach geographical barriers and disperse to new areas by hitching a ride in human vessels or cargo. In this paper a combination of literature analysis, historical research and original fieldwork is used to review the impact of ethnophoresy / anthropogenic animal translocation from ancient times to the present on the vertebrate zoogeography of Wallacea, New Guinea and the Northern Melanesian Islands, referred to collectively as the Circum New Guinea Archipelago. The focus of the paper is on translocated wild rather than domesticated vertebrates. The processes through which these species have been either unwittingly, accidentally or deliberately translocated to new areas are reviewed. Three principal categories of introduced wild species are recognised. These include stowaways, ethnotramps and incidentals. Ethnotramps include economically and culturally favoured animals such as Rusa Deer Cer...

A review of the diet of Rusa Deer Cervus timorensis russa in New Caledonia: Are the endemic plants defenceless against this introduced, eruptive ruminant?

Rusa Deer Cervus timorensis russa was introduced to New Caledonia in 1870 from Java, and has colonized the main island of Grande Terre, where it is found in virtually all the terrestrial biotopes. Despite its abundance and its socio-economic importance for New Caledonians, little is known about the diets of the wild deer populations living in contact with native vegetation which has a high degree of endemism and which, until recently, evolved without ruminant herbivores. We collected information on the diet of Rusa Deer in New Caledonia from published and unpublished reports, a questionnaire addressed to experts and preliminary data from browse-surveys. All sources of information suggested that wild Rusa Deer in New Caledonia is a mixed-feeder, and the list of plants consumed included 25 grasses, 15 forbs, 26 trees/shrubs and 12 vines and ferns. Nearly half (49%) of the plants identified as principal and preferred foods were introduced species. Physical defences (spines and thorns) did not seem to deter deer. It is remarkable that many of the avoided plants were native species (56% of the avoided species). Further research is required to confirm these results, but they are relevant to the evolution of plant/herbivore interactions and to the management of deer populations for conservation perspectives in island ecosystems.

Factors determining the distribution of introduced mammals in nature reserves of the southern province, New Caledonia

We studied the distribution of introduced mammals in six nature reserves of New Caledonia's southern province. Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) were common in both rainforest and shrubland but their abundance decreased with increasing altitude. Ship rats (Rattus rattus) were abundant in rainforest but less numerous in shrubland and their abundance did not increase with altitude. We found no Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) or house mice (Mus musculus domesticus) in reserves. Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) used mainly rainforest but also shrubland and preferred foraging in valleys with alluvial soils. Rusa deer (Cervus timorensis) selected shrubland over rainforest. Feral cats (Felis catus) were widely distributed in the reserves, whereas dogs (Canis familiaris) strayed into reserves but did not form feral populations.

Identification by R-banding and FISH of chromosome arms involved in Robertsonian translocations in several deer species.

We constructed and analyzed the RBG-banded karyotype of five deer species: Chital (Axis axis), White-lipped deer (Cervus albirostris), Rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa), Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) and Eld's deer (Cervus eldi siamensis). Among these five species, only Eld's deer had been previously karyotyped using R-banding. In order to identify all the chromosome correspondences with cattle and precisely which chromosome arms are involved in Robertsonian translocations, we compared the karyotypes of these five species with those of the closely related and well-characterized species, cattle (Bos taurus) and Vietnamese Sika deer (Cervus nippon pseudaxis). Among these six deer species (the five above plus the Vietnamese Sika deer), we found thirteen different Robertsonian translocations involving nineteen different chromosome arms. Thirteen chromosome arms were identified by comparison of R-banding patterns only and the remaining six were either confirmed or identified by FISH-mapping of bovine or caprine probes previously localized in cattle. Finally, we observed that five of the thirteen Robertsonian translocations are shared by at least two species and that some chromosome arms are more frequently involved in Robertsonian translocations than others.

Customary Forest Resource Management in Seram Island, Central Maluku: The "Seli Kaitahu" System

There is a customary regulation of forest use in Seram Island, Maluku, Eastern Indonesia, which is called seli kaitahu. This paper describes seli kaitahu forest management. The main findings of the field research in Manusela village, located in the interior forest of Central Seram, can be summarized in the following five points: 1) The major forest use pattern is the hunting of cuscus, timor deer, and wild boar. These game animals are indispensable for local people who are highly dependent on sago, which is mainly composed of pure starch. 2) In order to obtain wild meat, local people erect two kinds of traps in the forest: sohe for cuscus, and hus panah for timor deer and wild boar. 3) From the view point of land tenure, the forest as a hunting ground can be classified into household forest and kin-group forest. 4) Although the “ownership” of each forest lot belongs to a household or a group of joint owners, the actual patterns of forest use can be described as nonexclusive. If permission is given by the owner or the head of the joint ownership group, villagers are able to use the forest held by another owner/joint ownership group. 5) Based on the results of field research concerning the use of seli kaitahu, 104 (76%) forest lots out of 138 are preserved by seli kaitahu. Although the ecological function of the seli kaitahu system is still not precisely clear, judging from the fact that hunting is banned in most forest lots, it may be reasonable to conclude that seli kaitahu plays an important role in sustaining game animal populations.

Effect of the association of cattle and rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa) on populations of cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus).

The wild population of rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa) in New Caledonia (South Pacific) is nearly as large as the cattle population. The cattle tick is widespread and occurs all year round. Opinions are divided on the role of deer in the biological cycle of the tick: i) Do they maintain a sustainable tick population that is secondarily available for cattle? ii) Do they decrease the infestation of the environment by collecting larvae on the pasture, but preventing their development to the engorged female stage? or iii) Do they contribute to both situations? An experiment was conducted in three groups of pastures, each seeded with 450 000 larvae/ha and allowed to be grazed only by cattle, only by deer, and by a mixed herd of deer and cattle (deer representing 30% of the biomass), at approximately the same stocking rate (470-510 kg/ha). After 15 months of exposure, the tick burden per weight unit of host was 42 ticks/kg for the steers-only herd and 0.01/kg for the deer-only herd. The steers in the "mixed group" harbored 7 times fewer ticks (6.2/kg) than the cattle-only group, and the deer in the "mixed group," 130 times more (1.3/kg) than the deer-only group. Five emergency acaricide treatments had to be applied in the cattle-only group, but none in the other groups. The long-term sustainability of a viable tick population on deer as well as the potential benefit resulting from the association of deer and susceptible cattle in the tick control of cattle are highlighted.

Monoterpene effect on feeding choice by deer.

A previous study showed that Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis) consumption was negatively correlated with monoterpene content in western redcedar (Thuja plicata). To test whether these monoterpenes were deterrent to Sitka black-tailed deer, we performed feeding choice experiments with four hydrocarbon (sabinene, myrcene, alpha-pinene, and d + l-limonene) and one oxygenated (alpha,beta-thujone) monoterpene solution at their highest natural concentration in western redcedar foliage. To test whether deer response was species specific, we ran similar experiments on European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa). In all experiments, monoterpenes were repellent. Solutions with alpha,beta-thujone, the major monoterpene in redcedar leaves, were the most repellent of the solutions tested. We then analyzed how black-tailed and roe deer responded to (1) an increase in concentration of the monoterpenes with the weakest repellent effects (hydrocarbon monoterpenes) and (2) a decrease in concentration of the monoterpene with strongest effect (alpha,beta-thujone). Repellency tended to increase with concentration for hydrocarbon monoterpenes, but remained strong for alpha,beta-thujone. As wild deer regularly feed on plants containing monoterpenes, this raises the question as to how the animals deal with these molecules.

The Effect of Castration on Growth and Body Composition of Javan Rusa Stags

The effects of castration on growth and body composition of Javan rusa (Cervus timorensis russa) stags were examined at three slaughter ages in three experiments. Castration had no effects on growth rates, or liveweights at periodic weighings, at any stage in Experiments I and 2, when the stags were slaughtered at 19 and 13 months of age, respectively. In Experiment 3, monthly liveweights of castrated and entire stags were not significantly different until the stags were 21 months old. From this age, when they had recovered from their first rut season and were in their second spring/early summer, the entires grew more rapidly than the castrates. There were seasonal changes in growth in both treatments, indicating that pasture conditions influenced performance. Liveweights of entires and castrates were similar in stags slaughtered at 13 and 19 months, but castrates were smaller than entires at 25 months. Castration reduced the size of the head and skin, but there was little important effect of castration on body components at any slaughter age. Castration can be recommended as a management tool for rusa stags, especially if the animals are to be slaughtered before they exceed 19 months of age.

A mitochondrial DNA control region phylogeny of the Cervinae: speciation in Cervus and implications for conservation

AbstractSequences from complete mitochondrial control regions (mtDNA CR) were used to infer phylogenetic relationships in 25 Cervinae taxa. Cervus splits into clades that are partially discordant with current species delimitations. Nominate Cervus elaphus includes two divergent clades that must be referred to as species elaphus (European elaphoid deer) and canadensis (Eurasian and North American wapitoid deer). Cervus nippon splits into Japanese and continental plus Taiwan sika. Père David's deer is nested within Cervus, suggesting that Elaphurus should be merged with Cervus. European and Persian fallow deer are genetically divergent and distinct species. Sequence length varied due to a CR‐I insertion, tandemly repeated twice in rusa and sambar deer, sika and wapiti, and repeated up to six times in a clade of Japanese sika. Variable copy numbers of this repeat are also fixed in different sika subspecies, and could be used as a diagnostic marker for subspecies. Sequence variability at the mtDNA CR is informative for defining species and subspecies boundaries, and for locating the geographical origin of captive‐reared stocks. Natural and farmed populations of some species have been deeply affected by human management and the conservation of deer populations would be aided by the appropriate identification of the different evolutionary and taxonomic units.

Primal joints and hind-leg cuts of entire and castrated Javan rusa ( Cervus timorensis russa) stags

The effects of castration on the primal joints and the cuts of the leg joint of Javan rusa ( Cervus timorensis russa) stag carcases was investigated at three slaughter ages (13, 19 and 25 months). Castration reduced the weights of some primal joints in the 19- and 25-months age groups, but not at 13 months. At 19 months, the neck, and neck plus chuck, were heavier by 35 and 17% respectively in entires ( P<0.05), and at 25 months entires had heavier carcases, shoulder, forequarter and hindquarter ( P<0.05). The leg and saddle joints were approximately 39 and 18% of the side, respectively, for both treatments and all ages. The proportions of the neck, and neck plus chuck, were higher ( P<0.05) in 19-month old entires than castrates. There were few significant differences between treatments in the weight or proportion of the hind leg cuts at any slaughter age, but in the 25-months group the silverside was 8% ( P<0.05) heavier in entires. In both castrates and entires, there appeared to be an increase in the percentage of the rump as the animals grew from 13 to 19 months of age.

Role of Rusa deer Cervus timorensis russa in the cycle of the cattle tick Boophilus microplus in New Caledonia.

Two field experiments were conducted to evaluate the efficiency of Rusa deer in the development of the cattle tick Boaphilus microplus in comparison with that of steers in the same pastures and under the same conditions of infestation. No difference was noted between a mixed steer/deer herd and a pure steer or pure deer herd in the infestation pattern of each host, suggesting that attachment to the alternative host is mechanical and not affected by the simultaneous presence of the primary host on the pasture. Deer are capable of producing engorged viable females, with weight and reproductive performances similar to or even better than females fed on steers. For moderate levels (1 million larvae per hectare) and high levels (32 million larvae per hectare) of pasture infestation, tick burdens on steers were not very different (e.g. average 1,911 and 2,681 ticks per m2 skin, respectively, on day 24). This may be because of saturation of steer skin sites at the moderate larval dose. Deer harboured 2.7-33 times fewer ticks than steers and produce no engorged females at the moderate larval level and 32 times fewer engorged females than steers at the high larval level. Infestation of deer was dose-dependent with averages of 12 and 399 ticks per m2 skin on day 25 at the moderate and high larval levels, respectively. At a high infestation level of the environment, Rusa deer may contribute, but to a limited extent, to infestation of pastures and, consequently, of cattle. However, their role in sustaining a viable tick population requires further investigation.

Abattage commercial du cerf rusa (&lt;em&gt;Cervus timorensis russa&lt;/em&gt;) en Nouvelle-Calédonie : analyse des pratiques et incidence sur la qualité des carcasses

En réponse à l'augmentation des saisies des carcasses de cerfs rusa (Cervus timorensis russa) pour purpura d'abattage en Nouvelle-Calédonie, une enquête écopathologique fut mise en oeuvre à l'occasion d'une campagne d'exportation de venaison. Les facteurs de risque pouvant expliquer l'apparition de purpura et de carcasses à pH élevé ont été analysés selon le mode d'élevage, les modalités de collecte et de transport des animaux ainsi que les conditions d'abattage. Sur 520 cerfs abattus, 15 p. 100 ont été saisis pour purpura d'abattage, 87 p. 100 ont affiché un pH supérieur à 6 et 48 p. 100 un pH supérieur à 6,5. Les différentes analyses réalisées ont révélé, dans le cas du purpura d'abattage, une inadéquation entre les structures d'abattage et les cerfs provenant d'élevage en voie d'intensification. Pour les carcasses à pH supérieur à 6,5, il s'agissait d'un phénomène plus complexe mettant en jeu, notamment, le degré de manipulation des animaux, la pratique de stabulation la veille de l'abattage et la présence de purpura d'abattage. Les modalités d'abattage du cerf rusa en Australie et du cerf rouge en Nouvelle-Zélande indiquent qu'il est possible d'améliorer le système actuel.

The Komodo Dragon

FURTHER READING A deer nimbly picks its way down a path meandering through tall savanna grasses. It is an adult male of its species, , weighing some 90 kilograms (about 200 pounds). Also known as a Rusa deer, the animal knows this route well; many deer use it frequently as they move about in search of food. This Rusa's home is the Indonesian island of Komodo, a small link in a chain of islands separating the Flores Sea from the Indian Ocean [see ]. Most wildlife find survival a struggle, but for the deer on Komodo, and on a few of the nearby islands, nature is indeed quite red in tooth and claw. This deer is about to encounter a dragon. Cervus timorensis