Century BC Research Articles

Suggested mechanism of CCR5Δ32, CCR2-64I and SDF 1-3'A allele frequency change in Polish and Lithuanian gene pools from the perspective of passing time.

The study aimed to determine the frequency of the alleles associated with hereditary immune response in 16 historical populations and assess which evolutionary forces may have contributed to the observed frequency fluctuation. The analysed polymorphic sites are located in three genes - CCR5, CCR2 and SDF 1 (CXCL12). Protein products are involved in the innate immune response and are also involved in various types of infections, autoimmune diseases and tumours. The frequency of the alleles found in the DNA of the studied individuals was determined by the Sanger methodology and was compared with the data obtained for modern populations. To confirm the authenticity of the obtained results, mtDNA HVRI haplotypes of all the studied samples were obtained and compared with the genetic database of the laboratory personnel who came into contact with the studied material. Based on the variability of allele frequency, advanced biostatistical analysis was used to distinguish the effect of natural selection from genetic drift, i.e. the forces operating on the polymorphic sites studied. All procedures were performed according to the guidelines for working with ancient DNA to avoid contamination with modern DNA molecules. 681 samples from 39 archaeological sites in Poland and Lithuania dated to the 40th century BC and the 19th century were studied. The biostatistical analysis showed that the fluctuations in the frequency of CCR5Δ32 in the analysed time interval could be mainly the effect of genetic drift. Nevertheless, for CCR2-64I and SDF 1-3'A, the results confirm the suggestion of negative selection as the mechanism involved. Since all the polymorphic sites encode the elements of innate immune response that are indirectly associated with the process of an HPV infection and the development of cervical cancer, the human papillomavirus may be a good candidate for a selection coefficient affecting the frequency of CCR2-64I and SDF 1-3'A. However, for CCR5Δ32, selection was not detected despite its proven role in the molecular mechanism involved in the response to an HPV infection. The presented work seems to be the first in which the problem of the pattern of CCR5Δ32, CCR2-64I and SDF 1-3'A frequency fluctuations in a temporal perspective was discussed, proposing HPV as a factor influencing the occurrence of the CCR2 and SDF1 alleles.

Morphology of the bronze objects from the Pinchuga-6 burial ground

The article is concerned with bronze objects of the end of the Early Iron Age from the fully excavated burial ground of Pinchuga-6 in the Lower Angara River region. The cemetery is dated to the 3rd–4th centuries BC. All burials were made following the rite of burial on the side. Three categories of copper alloy products have been distinguished: belt set parts, jewelry, and cult castings. The components of the belt sets include flat openwork buckles, hoops and bird-shaped overlays. Flat openwork buck-les have no analogues in the neighbouring territories. They appeared on the basis of the circle of post-Hunnic cultures of South-ern Siberia and were used in the Angara taiga until the mid-1st millennium AD. One belt hoop with volutes and an openwork patch is of a typical Tashtyk Culture appearance. At the end of the Early Iron Age, bird-headed belt plates were used across a vast territory that stretched from the Ural Mountains in the west to the banks of the Yenisei and Angara Rivers in the east. The jewelry includes tubular cast and spiral beads, stripes and pendants. The majority of items are multi-functional — they could be worn different ways. All of them were widespread in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, and they do not have a clear cultural and chronological reference. At Pinchuga-6, various objects of cult casting were found, including ornitho-, zoo- and ichthyomor-phic images, and disks with a circular ornament. These items have similarities among the Ishim and Kholmogory collections, materials from the Aidashinskaya cave, and Tomsk and Ust-Abinsk burial grounds. Pinchuga-6 is currently the farthest north-eastern site where such objects have been found. The grave goods of the cemetery contain items of different cultural attribution made of copper-based alloys. In this single complex in the Angara River region, objects from Western Siberia, Khakass-Minusinsk depression, and, possibly, of local origin have been found. XRF analysis of the items has been carried out. Lead-tin and tin bronze prevail, although being in approximately equal quantities, individual objects are made of copper, a small amount of arsenic is traced in two buckles, one ornithomorphic image is cast from an alloy with a significant amount of silver. The clo-sest in this feature, as well as in the amount of tin and lead in the alloys, are the products of the Tomsk burial ground.

Bone items from burial No. 9 of the cemetery near the Berezovaya Mountain (traceological analysis and the search for analogies)

In this article, we analyze bone products from the male burial No. 9 of the cemetery near the Berezovaya Mountain (Oren-burg District of the Cis-Ural region) attributed to the Sintashta Culture (20th–18th centuries BC). The funerary complex is specifi-cally interesting because it combines the ritual and inventory of representatives of the Seima-Turbino phenomenon and items belonging to chariot cultures. Furthermore, an item rare for the cultures of the chariot circle of the Ural region was placed in the burial — a disc-shaped bone buckle. The aim of this work is to find an analogy for this buckle and for other bone items of the complex using traceology data. The buckle was traceologically processed on 31st July 2002 in the campus of the Orenburg archaeological expedition two days after its discovery; at the same time its drawing was made. An astragalus and a fragment of the articular angle of the animal's scapula, both having been placed within the burial, were also analysed. Due to field condi-tions, a portable contact microscope “Mikko” was used. The main focus of this work is the buckle. The results of the traceologi-cal analysis are being introduced into the scientific discourse. Besides, for the first time this article presents the results of tra-ceological study of a similar object from burial mound 27 near the city of Atkarsk. A total of 15 buckles with similar morphology have been analyzed, 11 of them have traceological definitions. A fragment of the product of the same type was only once identi-fied in the Sintashta necropolis (grave 30 of the Sintashta burial ground); the majority of similar items derive from the sites of the Abashev Culture of the Volga-Don region. It has been revealed that the analyzed artifacts could have been used as both belt buckles and ornaments/amulets. The artifact from the burial ground near the Berezovaya Mountain is most likely a buckle, jud-ging by its size and the size of the central hole. The discovery of a buckle typologically characteristic of the Don-Volga Abashevo Culture in the Sintashta Culture necropolis demonstrates the western connections of the population who left the site. The astragalus found in the burial could have been used as a fortune-telling/dice object. The functional purpose of the articular angle of the animal’s scapula has not been determined — no analogies have been found for it, though a possible circle of analo-gies has been outlined.

Non-ferrous metal of the Bronze Age of Northern Kazakhstan: geochemical characteristics and ore base

The chemical composition of 29 copper and bronze artifacts from the sites of the Petrovka and Alakul Cultures located be-tween the Tobol and Ishim Rivers (the burial grounds of Bekteniz and Dzhangildy 5, and the sites of Novonikolskoye 1 and Semioz-ernoye 2; Northern Kazakhstan) were analysed using mass spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma and laser ablation. The sites are 14C dated to the interval between the 19th–17th centuries BC. In the examined sample, the leading metallurgical group with a slight prevalence in both Petrovka and Alakul metals was “pure” copper; the second part of the metal was represented by tin bronzes — low-alloyed (up to 8 wt.% Sn) in the Petrovka, and high-alloyed (Sn up to 21 wt.%) in the Alakul Culture. The statistical analysis of the main components of trace elements in the metal demonstrated a division into six main geochemical groups. Among these, tin bronzes with an uninterpretable copper component (10 specimens), “pure” copper of Ural origin with Fe-Co-Ni-As-Zn correlations (9 specimens), and “pure” copper with polymetallic Sn-Pb-As-Ag-Se specialization (10 copies), corresponding to the ores of copper deposits of the Kokshetau anticlinorium, can be identified. An overview of the tectonic structures of Northern Ka-zakhstan shows the nearby presence of several porphyry copper and skarn deposits with ancient mines (Imantau, Baksinskoye, Akkan-Burlukskoye, etc.), which likely served as sources of copper ore. Closely associated with these are Greisen and quartz-vein-greisen tin deposits, but there is no reliable information about their use in ancient times. According to the composition of tin alloys in the analysed metal, two main types can be distinguished: tin (without correlation with other impurity elements) when using pure cassiterite, and tin-lead (with increased concentrations and correlation of As, Au, Bi, etc.) when using cassiterite-sulfide ores. The data show the association of the Bronze Age sites of Northern Kazakhstan with the ore and raw materials base in this region, and the intensity of trade exchange of metallurgical products between the Ural and Kazakhstan centers of metal production.

Metallographic study of non-ferrous metal products from the Maray 1 site of the Baitovo Cul-ture in the Lower Ishim River region

The article examines non-ferrous metal products from the Baitovo Culture materials of the Early Iron Age hillfort of Marai 1. This settlement is located in the forest-steppe of the Ishim River region of Western Siberia. The upper building hori-zon marks the settlement of the Baitovo Culture dating to the 4th–2nd centuries BC. Metallographic analysis of 28 items was carried out using the Axio Observer D1m microscope (Zeiss). As a result, eight technological schemes characteristic for the metalworking activities of the Baitovo population have been identified. The study shows that prevailing were smithing tech-nologies in different temperature regimes for the production of non-ferrous metal objects (16 specimens, 57.2 %). The pref-erence was given to hot forging in the red-heat regime at 600–800°C (7 specimens, 25 %), cold forging with annealing (5 specimens, 17.8 %), as well as incomplete hot forging at 300–500°C (3 specimens, 10.7 %). Casting without further refine-ment was recorded in the microstructures of arrowheads, ingots and splashes (9 specimens, 14.2 %). Casting, followed by a slight degree of deformation (20–30 %), was noted in three cases. This scheme correlates with the metalworking traditions of the Itkul and Krasnoozerskaya Cultures, and it was dominant on the territory of the Tobol-Ishim region during the Early Iron Age. Such a low percentage of items related to it could be explained by the absence in Marai 1 of large items cast in moulds needing further refinement (knives, celts, etc.). A microstructural study confirmed the use of pure oxidized copper by the craftsmen of the Baitovo Culture, with characteristic inclusions of Cu–Cu2O eutectic, associated with the Ural production centres. Arrowheads and an ingot made of pure oxidized copper were probably a direct import from the territory of the Itkul Culture. Low-alloy tin and arsenic bronzes, coming from the metal production centres of Kazakhstan and Altai, were also used to the same extent for production of some tools and jewellery. The correlation between the type of product, composition of raw materials and technology of its manufacture has been revealed, which is most clearly manifested in arrowheads and awls. The use of high temperatures and significant degrees of compression (80–90 %) has been recorded in a number of cases, resulting in the appearance of rejects. Cracks of hot brittleness, as well as of cold brittleness, occurred in the process of technological cycle, carried out with an excess of the tensile strength of the metal.

Athenaeus of Attaleia on the Elements of Medicine

Abstract Athenaeus of Attaleia (fl. mid-first century BC) offers a fascinating example of the interest among Graeco-Roman physicians in marking out the boundaries between medicine and philosophy. As founder of the so-called Pneumatist medical sect, he was deeply influenced by contemporary Stoicism. A number of surviving ancient testimonia tell us that he held a distinctive view on the question of how far medicine should analyse the composition of the human body. Rather than having recourse to the Stoic cosmic elements fire, air, earth and water, he maintained that in the context of the medical art, the relevant elements were the elemental qualities hot, cold, wet and dry. This paper is an attempt to pin down Athenaeus’ position on these issues, and his motivations for holding it, despite a number of conflicting and problematic claims in the surviving evidence.

After the Fall of the Caravan Kingdoms. Notes about the Occupation of Sumhuram and the Area of Khor Rori (Oman) from the Fifth Century AD to the Islamic Period

Since the beginning of the investigations in the area of Khor Rori and at the site of Sumhuram, the easternmost outpost of the caravan kingdoms along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, cultural material and architectural evidence seemed to exclude frequentation, both permanent and seasonal, during the Islamic period. Indeed, it was assumed that any form of occupation, which had begun in the second century BC, ceased in the fifth century AD, consistent with the historical, economic and cultural scenario that marked the end of the caravan kingdoms. However, discoveries made during more recent fieldwork, along with a critical reinterpretation of previously collected data, have clearly demonstrated the existence of a late occupation of the area, which can be tentatively dated to the Late Antique period in the case of the burials located nearby and to the Islamic period in the case of the reoccupation of the site. This paper will discuss the preliminary results of the re-analysis of the late evidence, focusing on the last architectural structures, the small finds and some of the pottery.

Prehistoric and Early Medieval Settlement Features at Ravelrig Road and Newmills Road, Balerno, City of Edinburgh

Evaluation and excavation works in advance of housing development at two sites on Ravelrig Road and Newmills Road, Balerno, City of Edinburgh, revealed significant archaeological features evidencing multi-phase settlement. At Ravelrig Road, two groups of pits were dated to the Early and Middle to Late Neolithic periods with a cluster of Copper Age and Early Bronze Age features that included two possible storage features. At Newmills Road, alongside limited evidence for late prehistoric occupation in the form of pits dating to the last centuries BC and the first centuries AD, the most significant remains were of early medieval date, including a ring-groove representing a putative roundhouse and other features, including a hearth and linear boundary features, generally placed between the 7th and 9th centuries AD according to radiocarbon dating.

The Evolution of Female Characters From Antiquity to Modernity: An Examination of Marinna Carr's and Carol Lashof's Adaptations of Classical Mythology

Literature relies heavily on mythology. Myths are stories of deities, monsters or immortals which are transformed from one generation to the other. In addition to documenting the religious and cultural experiences of a specific community, myths also outline the consequent literary, artistic and dramatic customs. Some Greek myths have survived for thousands of years because they accurately depict historical events, cultural values, and trends. Among the most famous classical myths are the myths of Medusa and Medea. As for the myth of Medusa, the earliest known record was found in Theogony (700BC) by Hesiod (8 th-7th century BC). A later version of the Medusa myth was made by the Roman poet Ovid (43BC –17/18AD), in his “Metamorphoses” (3-8 AD). Then again, Medea is a tragedy produced in 431 BC by the Greek playwright Euripides(480–406BC) based on the myth of Jason and Medea. Both Medusa and Medea are among the most fascinating and complex female protagonists in Greek mythology which have captivated many writers and playwrights for ages. In the twentieth century, there were many adaptations of both mythological figures; among these adaptations were those made by contemporary American and Irish women playwrights like Carol Lashof (1956-) and Marinna Carr (1964-). This paper examines the myths of Medusa and Medea and analyses the ways these myths are borrowed, refashioned and exploited in Lashof’s Medusa’s Tale (1991) and Carr’s By the Bog of Cats (1998). Both playwrights explore hidden dimensions of the traditional myths, combining elements from the old and modern worlds.

Segmental femoral fracture malunion: evidence and prognostic analysis of medical intervention in the third century BC

We examined the remains of an individual who was unearthed from the Tuchengzi site and was believed to be from the Warring States period in China. The remains exhibited segmental femoral fracture. We aimed to deduce the cause of fracture, medical interventions, healing process, and motion behavior after fracture healing using several techniques, including macroscopic observation, computed tomography (CT), and finite element analysis. Based on the morphology of the long bones, it appeared that the individual was male. The fractures resulted in an adduction angle of 5.47° and an anterior flexion angle of 21.34° in the proximal femur, while the femoral neck anteversion angle had been replaced by a retroversion angle of 10.74°. Additionally, the distal femur formed an abnormal anterior convex angle of 144.60°. CT revealed mature callus formation and visible trabecular bundles. The finite element analysis indicated that the maximum von Mises stress in the femur was 17.44 MPa during standing and 96.46 MPa during walking. We suggest that medical practitioners in the Warring States period possessed a good knowledge of thigh anatomy, enabling them to perform fracture reduction and fixation. Reasonable medical intervention facilitated fracture healing and load recovery. Satisfactory fracture healing ensured that the individual could engage in normal standing and walking activities after rehabilitation.

Golden Swords of the Early Nomads of Eurasia: A New Classification and Chronology

The “ceremonial” forms of swords and daggers—that is, bladed weapons decorated with precious metals—occupy a special place in the culture of the early nomads. For the Scythian period, we know at least 76 ceremonial objects from 61 sites, corresponding to 3.5% of the total sample. More than half of the finds come from the northern Black Sea region (mainly Ukraine). Ceremonial forms are represented in all morphological categories (from daggers to extra-long swords), but their distribution is slightly different. Most akinakai belong to the average and long swords. Most Scythian akinakai in Eurasia belong to the dagger and short sword groups. Although most Scythian swords and daggers fall into the Middle Scythian period, most ceremonial forms belong to the last phase of Classical Scythian culture. This period is a veritable “golden autumn” of Scythia with its huge royal burial mounds and abundance of gold, perfectly illustrating our argument that conspicuous consumption coincides with periods of political and social instability. After the peak of the proliferation of ceremonial akinakai in the third quarter of the 4th century BC, we observe a generation later the complete disappearance of Classical Scythian culture, along with its characteristic weapons, horse harnesses, and animal style.

Przekład epigramatów wotywnych Leonidasa z Tarentu z VI ks. „Antologii Palatyńskiej”

This paper presents a Polish translation of the votive epigrams by Leonidas of Tarentum from Book VI of Anthologia Palatina. Leonidas, a Hellenistic poet typically assigned to the first half of the third century BC, who has approximately 100 epigrams attributed to him. While adhering to the conventional structure of votive epigram and epitaph, his poetry stands out for its innovation. The epigrammatist employs a language that is both lavish and ornamental, utilizing numerous poetic devices to vividly depict ordinary people and artisans. However, his poems extend beyond these subjects, with Leonidas also lauding renowned poets, crafting ecphrases of artworks, and composing reflective epigrams on philosophical themes.

The Women of Trachis Jealousy, Hatred and Revenge in Sophocles' Tragedy Intrafamilial Marriage and the Husbands' Widow's Wills the Famous Oracle

In this tragedy by Sophocles, the real theme is the treatment of "prey women" and their influence on the psychological family situation and society in classical Athens. "The Women of Trachis" as well as "Oedipus Rex" and "Oedipus on Colonus" show what an enormously perceptive, in today's terms, psychologist and sociologist Sophocles was. In the fifth century BC, many wars were waged in Greece and prisoners were turned into slaves. Classical Greece thrived on slavery, which also included so-called prey woman. In The Women of Trachis Sophocles describes the jealousy of a wife, with the resulting actions, when the marriage is overstretched and the jealousy is increased through corresponding insults (over the decades). How hatred and revenge then gain the upper hand, ultimately leading to death. The intra-family marriage policy in Athens, which often leads to emotional and social unhappiness, is also a clear theme in the "Women of Trachis", long before Sophocles' two Oedipus tragedies. In his tragedies, Sophocles dealt with sociological themes and human suffering. The poets changed the mythology according to the requirements of their desired intention of the tragedy. The transformation of the myth consists in its integration into the polis and its new reference systems. The fact that the tragic poet sets the problems of his time in a past contributes to the possibility of the tragedy's reception. In the tragedies Oedipus Rex and Oedipus at Colonus, for example, a reference to the social reality in Athens at the time is assumed. The tragedies that were performed at the Dionysia (festival) are characterized by an interpenetration of present and past. Tragedies were organized as competitions, so that the poets had to take the audience's sensitivities into account. Classical philologists are often prevented from producing realistic text analyses and interpretations by idealizing and glorifying Greek tragedies and thus not taking into account the social customs and laws of the time. If we think, that the Greeks had no interest in such a psychological process as how a decision comes about, we are seriously mistaken and we do not do justice to the great, psychologically astute tragedians. Without a sociological, psychological and medical approach, applied to the tragedies that contain such themes in Sophocles and also Euripides in excellent execution, we will not do justice to these brilliant poets. We are left with interpretations without a sociological and psychological understanding of Greek classicism.

Dini Metin ve Geleneklerde Mitra Kültü ve Mitraizm Üzerine Bir İnceleme

The cult of Mitra, which is related to the cult of the Sun, was active in Anatolia, India and Iran. The name and cult of Mitra has been widely used in Indian and Iranian religious texts and rituals. It still continues in the Zoroastrian tradition. The religious tradition of Mithraism, which bears the same name, emerged in the Roman period in the 1st century BC in the form of the religion of mystery, and continued its existence in Anatolia and Roman lands until the 5th century. Mithraism, which was adopted by Roman soldiers and merchants, spread to Europe and North Africa under the rule of Rome, and took various forms by mixing with local cults. Mithraism, which was banned and subjected to oppression when Christianity became the official religion of Rome, declined and its temples were destroyed. Mithraism survived among the Gnostics and disappeared into history. Keywords: Mithra, Mithraism, Rigveda, Avesta, Greek-Roman Mythology

Women as concordia seekers in Ancient Rome: gender discourses and propaganda ideology (second-first centuries BC)

ABSTRACT Concordia was a moral tool for the regulation of conflicts and the maintenance of order within the ancient Roman family. This paper focuses on the relationship that Roman ideology established between women and harmony, conceiving them as guarantors of peace. From a perspective of gender and peace research, gender discourses present in texts as well as in the images and legends of Roman coins from the end of the Republic (2nd-1st centuries BC) are analysed. The article aims to answer the questions of how women were made responsible for peace, the symbolic meanings and implications this had, as well as the possibilities for agency and recognition it offered them.

The Monumental Kurgans in Bronze Age in River Kura Basin

The article contains with the archaeological excavations of the Deller Jayir kurgans at 322.700 km of the SCPX (South Caucasus Pipeline Expansion Project) pipeline corridor. These kurgans are located in the territory of Deller Jayir village of Shamkir district of Azerbaijan Republic. About 10 kurgans were recorded in the kurgan field located on a relatively high hill on the right bank of the river, about 100-150 m away from the Jayir River, only 2 of them fell into the pipeline corridor, excavated and explored.
 The surface of the Deller Jayir kurgans consists of stone formations with a clearly visible circular shape and a relatively concave center. They are located close to each other at a distance of 5-6 m. Preliminary analysis of the structures and burial rites in the Deller Jayir kurgans and the forms of the few pottery fragments found in these kurgans show that these kurgans date the transition stage from Middle Bronze Age to the Late Bronze Age, to be precisely, to the 15th-14th centuries BC.

Religious Pluralism and Diversity in the Ancient World: Herodotus, the Roman Republic and Late Antiquity

The subject of religious pluralism and diversity is much debated today, but has attracted much less attention in discussions of ancient Greek and Roman religion. In my contribution, I first look at the genealogy of the term ‘religious pluralism’ and differentiate it from diversity as being more normative. Subsequently, I look at Herodotus’ view of Persian religion as an example of religious diversity. I note that this Greek author, himself from a multicultural background, would today be considered a relativist. In his time, though, there was not yet a specific term for religious deviancy, which, as noted, started to emerge in the later fourth century BC (§ 1). I continue by looking at the Roman Republic and the early Principate. From a quantitative analysis, it is clear that the Roman term religio becomes more important in the first century BC and also acquires the meaning of a system of religious observances that can be regulated, which is an important step towards its later meaning ‘religion’. At the same time, we note the rise of the concomitant term superstitio as the wrong religio. Still, the Roman elite tolerated a wide variety of new cults outside civic religion and basically practised diversity (§ 2). After this, I will turn to the demise of religious diversity and pluralism in Late Antiquity, where we start to see religious persecutions for the very first time (§ 3). I conclude with some final considerations on the necessity of dialogue in negotiating religious differences.

Reconstructing a Book Collection Through the Identification of a Copyist: Reused Rolls in Context

Abstract The article focuses on a group of five literary papyri dated to the second half of the second century BC that have been scattered among three different collections (Berlin, Manchester and Paris). Based on a thorough analysis of their material aspects, I attempt to define the context and purpose of their production.

The walking dead: Identity, variability, and cultural interactions of funerary behaviors between Crete and mainland Greece during the Early Iron Age (11th to 8th BC)

This paper aims to examine funerary contexts of sites in mainland Greece and compare them with sites on the island of Crete in Ancient Mediterranean during the Early Iron Age, in the period of circa the 11th until the 8th centuries BC. From an integrative approach to the analysis and interpretation of material culture from funerary contexts allow us to understand aspects of the space of the dead, aspects of mortuary practices and their role in the configuration of the historical context of the rise and formation of the polis, especially during the 8th century BC. The comparative analyses also provide a better understanding about contact and interactions in the Mediterranean. This requires us to analyze and consider on the different nature of material culture from funerary contexts, such as types of treatment and deposition/disposal/placement of the body of the dead, the construction of funerary architecture, grave goods, and the agency of the space of the dead in the construction of the funerary topography (funerary landscape). Cultural interactions are material expressions resulting from the exchange of ideas, know-how, technique and technology, beliefs, customs, and behaviors, both from objects and from the movement of people. They constitute a prospective field to address mortuary archaeological data as an active part of death and of the social process of dying. Funerary behaviors assign meanings, build memories and identities to biological death. They bring life to the transition of an active person in the “world of the living” into a passive “material thing” in the “world of the dead”. Thus, the dead, become the “walking dead” and “come to life”. Cultural interactions during the Early Iron Age constitute a fundamental element in the configuration of a new historical structure, the polis, which characterizes the Greek world as a unit – not homogeneous but consisting of heterogeneous and idiosyncratic aspects. Mortuary practices integrate this world of simultaneously standardized and peculiar actions and have crucial roles in the hellenic identity and in the identity particularities of its polis in Greek mainland and Crete.

The beginning of the Iron Age south of the Congo rainforest: the first archaeological investigations around Idiofa (Congo), c. 146 BC – AD 1648

ABSTRACT Archaeological investigations of the Idiofa region in the Kwilu Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo have yielded the earliest evidence for iron production, combined with ceramics and lithic artefacts, south of the Congo rainforest during the second century BC. Palaeoecological data show that the producers of this industry did not settle in open grasslands but in a habitat where the forests had started to undergo climate-induced degradation before their arrival. The Early Iron Age at Idiofa continues until the third century AD and is followed by a long hiatus that was not driven by climate change until the fifteenth century. Later Iron Age (LIA) pottery in the area, which dates to c. 1487–1648, is markedly distinct from that of the EIA in vessel forms, size, recipe and decoration. EIA pottery from Idiofa resembles most closely slightly younger Kay Ladio pottery (c. cal. AD 30–475) from the Lower Congo region further west, which is also associated with the first metallurgy there. Idiofa’s LIA pottery is indicative of a fifteenth- through seventeenth-century exchange network between the Kamtsha and Kasai Rivers. These shifting dynamics in pottery production are reflected in the region’s linguistic stratigraphy, which may contribute to the interdisciplinary reconstruction of the history of ancestral Bantu speakers south of the rainforest.