Century AD Research Articles

Prosper’s Law: putting the lex back into orandi and credendi

Abstract This article demonstrates the centrality of ‘law’ to the famous dictum of Prosper of Aquitaine, lex orandi lex credendi. In its various appearances since the fifth century AD, the relationship in Prosper’s dictum between worship and belief has been, at best, assumed. I propose that the nature of that relationship is actually explicit in the dictum itself. That is, Prosper’s invocation of law—‘lex’. In particular, I demonstrate the importance of that term from a modern and an ancient perspective: the modern notion of speech-act theory; and the historical context of the Codex Theodosius, newly promulgated at the time of Prosper’s writing. From those perspectives, Prosper’s dictum is newly perceived as words which do things. It is both an example of heresiology and also seeks to establish the law. On the one hand, there appears to be a normativity newly prescribed for doctrine (credendi) following the lead of worship (orandi). On the other hand, I argue that Prosper’s prescription is for something more lively than ‘mere’ ritual normativity, namely established custom. This, as I will show, emerges from the contribution of the familiar Roman pair ius and lex.

A Possible Patronal Orientation for St Guthlac’s Church, Passenham

Medieval churches in England have a wide variety of orientations. Some have an equinoctial orientation, facing true east towards the sunrise on the equinox. However, most, although facing eastwards, diverge from true east, and over the centuries the reason for such variation has been the subject of much debate. A popular, but by no means proven, theory is that they are oriented towards the rising Sun on the feast day of their particular patron saint. This paper considers St Guthlac’s, Passenham, a Northamptonshire church close to the ancient Danelaw border with alleged connections to King Edward the Elder and the West Saxon army in the tenth century AD. The church orientation shows good agreement with the rising Sun on the feast day of St Guthlac, a popular Mercian warrior saint of the period, who was celebrated as a symbol of the Anglo-Saxons’ potential for victory over the pagan Vikings.

Fenland Fields: Evolving Settlement and Agriculture on the Roddon at Viking Link Substation, Bicker Fen, Lincolnshire

Archaeological mitigation undertaken by Headland Archaeology (UK) Ltd at Bicker Fen, Lincolnshire, uncovered the remains of two distinctly different enclosure systems situated on a raised roddon (the dried raised bed of a watercourse). The earliest of these systems was characterised by a series of inter-linked enclosures that formed part of a larger complex farmstead developing around the mid-2nd century AD. The enclosure system subsequently evolved through phases of maintenance and expansion, potentially following changes in agricultural practice or as a result of environmental influences. Features in the northern part of the excavation provide some evidence for industrial activity, including iron smithing and bone working, within the settlement. Zooarchaeological evidence, however, suggests that the main economic focus of this rural community was beef production. It seems that the farmstead remained occupied until at least the 4th century AD, with radiocarbon dates suggesting continued activity of some kind into the 5th century. The Saxon field system was situated to the east of the Roman settlement and is geographically independent. The system is less substantial in nature than the Roman enclosures, characterised by curvilinear boundaries and irregular enclosure sizes. Radiocarbon dating suggests that activity took place between the 6th and 10th centuries AD. During this phase, the focus appears to have been pastoralism. This, together with the transient nature of the system and many maintenance phases, suggests seasonal or otherwise ad hoc land use away from the core of any settlement.

A Roman bath with broken windows in Asine, Argolis. The result of repeated earthquakes?

A substantial assemblage of Roman window glass—consisting primarily of “cast”, matt/glossy examples, but also including cylinderblown, double-glossy window glass—was discovered during the 1926 excavations of a Late Roman bath in Asine, Argolis, the Peloponnese, Greece. It is clear that this material emanates from damage done to the building, and the question of whether this had human or natural causes is discussed in this paper: was it the “barbarian” invasion of the Visigoth king Alaric in the late 4th century AD that led to the windows being broken? Or, was the damage caused by the earthquakes known to have hit the Eastern Mediterranean area in Late Antiquity? Traces of destruction typical of earthquakes were found in the bath building, and the destruction occurred in a period known for its high seismic activity: the so-called Early Byzantine Tectonic Paroxysm, which led to the conclusion that the bath was hit by at least one, possibly several, earthquakes, causing the windows to shatter and fall out of their frames. Some of the glass sherds were in all probability hidden under dust and debris and were never recovered despite the fact that glass was extensively recycled at the time.

Building the social. A query into the societal impact of the Pompeian water supply

This study explores the importance of the means of ensuring water supply in the formation of the architectural profile and basic social organization of Pompeii. It sees the city’s domestic water supply, for over two centuries ensured through rainwater-harvesting areas, basins and cisterns situated mainly in and below the many atria, as a stabilizing factor of both cityscape and household. Through the introduction of the city aqueduct in the 1st century AD and the creation of a generous network of public fountains this situation changes and the need to maintain the traditional organization of the “houseful”, comprising enlarged family, slaves and dependents of various kind including shopkeepers, is lessened; the physical proximity between those of different status renegotiated. This development, witnessed in adaptations of the architecture, can be followed through close study of the standing structures in Insula V 1. The hallmarks are the creation of upperfloor living quarters seemingly independent from the life of the large households of the atrium houses, and in parallel the introduction of private water lines from the city aqueduct. The remodelling that resulted in the creation of the double-atrium house of Caecilius Iucundus is focal to the discussion since it offers a coeval chronological fix point in the AD 40s for both remodelling and obtention of piped water. Given that the change in the domestic architecture observed was merely in its embryonic state in AD 79, the tenability to attribute a lower dating than that traditionnaly attributed not just to the private lines, but to the city’s distribution system of public aqueduct water as well, is reasoned. The particularities of Pompeii’s geomorphological situation and political status and how they impacted the discussed change in social relationships are also raised.

Monasteries in the vicinity of Armenian capitals (7th–13th centuries ad): Archaeology of architectural and urban context

The article analyzes the spread of monasteries in the immediate vicinity or on distant approaches to two cities of Armenia of the late classical and medieval periods, considering information in the sources, the results of archaeological excavations and on-site inspections of the sites. The author reconstructs the sequence of the topography of churches and monasteries near the capitals of the country – Vagharshapat and Ani, identifying the similarities and differences between them. It is noted that the development of the system of shrines in the vicinity of Vagharshapat was determined by the very history of the establishment of Christianity. The main patrons of the church construction from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD were Catholicoses. In the vicinity of Ani, where a surge in the construction of monasteries occurred in the first half of the 11th century AD, there was no given programme, and the originators included the Bagratuni kings and influential princes. While the development of churches near Vagharshapat started under the Arsacid dynasty, continued after the abolition of their royal power, and reached its peak in the first half of the 7th century AD, the monasteries in the vicinity of Ani, founded under the Bagratids, were subsequently developed less actively. In addition, the paper also reveals the specific location of monastic complexes in the vicinity of Ani in connection with the terrain crossed strongly by gorges and the traditional concentration of towns and monasteries along the right, and less often the left, banks of the Akhuryan River. Both on the Ararat Plain and on the Shirak Plateau, the churches and complexes accompanying the capital cities transformed the landscape, so ecclesiastic architectural images marked the visual boundaries of a special, elite culture.

Sources of Silver in North-Eastern Rus in the 10th–13th centuries ad according to lead isotope analysis

The article discusses the results of lead isotope analysis of 54 silver objects from the 9th–13th centuries AD from rural sites of Suzdal Opolye and villages around Murom. As a result of comparing the obtained data with the available databases for Pb-Pb isotopic values of archaeological objects from various collections and ore samples, it was established that in the second half of the 10th – early 11th century AD, Samanid dirhams were used in Opolye as a raw material for jewellery making. In the 11th century, silver from European sources began to flow into the region via the Baltic, becoming dominant by the end of the century. In Opolye and Murom of the 12th century, adornments were made from European raw materials.

Tenth-century Hoard from the village of Korobkino in Kursk Province

In 1915, near the village of Korobkino, Kursk Province, a hoard of seven silver bracelets and a solid dating from 923–924 was found. The article determines its place in the historical and cultural context of both the region and Eastern Europe as a whole. It has been established that these decorations are not characteristic of the Romny antiquities. It is evident from the design of bracelets with tied ends and the use of thick wire, polyhedral in section. Gold coins were found mainly on the territory of Rus. The solid from Korobkino is the only find in the vast area of the Romny archaeological culture, which fact emphasizes the peculiarity of the complex. The author suggests dating the hoard within the second–third quarters of the 10th century AD. In general, its composition demonstrates the synthesis of northern (Scandinavia) and southern (Byzantium) contacts of the population of the emerging Rus culture. The owner of the hoard was related to the druzhina (prince’s retinue) layer of society. No other traces of such a distinct “Russian presence” concentrated in one complex have been found in the Severian land so far.

Window Glass of a Medieval Church at the Village of Veseloye Near Adler

Frequent finds from the excavations of a Christian church of the late 9th–11th century AD at the village of Veseloye (Greater Sochi) include fragments of unpainted and coloured window glass made by blowing in the disks shape, mostly, of 18 cm diameter. By the design of their edges, discs are divided into two types – one with a loop-shaped edge and one with a slightly thickened straight or slightly raised edge, and by the type of surface – smooth ones and those decorated with relief “optical” decor. A review of finds of medieval window glass over a wide area shows that finds from the Veseloye church fit into this array typologically and chronologically, which can be explained by the common technology of manufacturing this highly demanded glass product. In further research, it will be necessary to find out where window glass was produced for the churches of medieval Abkhazia and the Greater Sochi region.

New group of glazed Anatolian Pottery from the Ottoman fortress of Azak

The article introduces a new group of glazed pottery of Anatolian production from the archaeological studies of different years (1962, 2004, 2020) on the territory of the former Ottoman fortress of Azak in the North-Eastern Azov Region. Among the finds, there are 20 fragments of open shaped vessels (bowls, plates) and one fragment of the lid which originate from redeposited cultural layer of the site dated back to the late Middle Ages – Modern period. Close analogies can be found on the Crimean peninsula in the materials from the excavations in Sudak, Aluston, Cembalo, Mangup, Partenit, Biyuk-Lambat (Maly Mayak), and Chufut-Kale where they are generally dated by the last quarter of 15th–17th century AD, as well as in South-Western Georgia (Gonio fortress in Adjara) and on the Taman Peninsula (the Taman fortified settlement) in the cultural layer of the 16th–17th centuries AD. Production centre for this group of Ottoman pottery has not yet been established. The group got its conventional name ‘thick-walled bichrome bowls’ due to the dominant archaeological remains of thick-walled bowls with the characteristic decor style in the Crimea.

Bone and antler products from the Toretskoye urban settlement of the 15th century ad

Products made of bone and antler complement the characteristics of the material culture of the Toretskoye urban settlement, a major centre of crafts and international trade in the Kazan Khanate. In accordance with the general dating of the single-layer site, all items made of bone and antler have a reliable period of existence within the 15th century AD. Based on frequent numismatic material and other related context, the products receive the status of a chronological and, in some cases, ethnocultural reference point, and in terms of inventory and manufacturing techniques they represent products of urban production. No specialized bone-carving workshops have been found at the site; however, the presence of blanks and faulty products in the coppersmith and blacksmith workshops makes it possible to conclude that bone and antler processing was a related craft of complex production.

Material taxonomies and beads on the East African coast, seventh-fifteenth centuries AD

ABSTRACT Beads found in assemblages from the coast of East Africa have received significant archaeological attention. Glass beads were imported in large numbers to coastal sites from Indian Ocean trade networks from at least the seventh century AD; they give an important indication of the volume and direction of trade. Beads produced locally from materials such as shell have normally been understood in the same ways, seen as objects of trade for partners within and beyond Africa. In this paper, bead evidence is instead considered as an index of local values and uses. Beads of different materials are reviewed and a more flexible approach to taxonomy is suggested, highlighting local categories of object that do not entirely align with archaeological taxonomies based on raw materials and technology. A set of skeuomorphic beads from the Tanzanian sites of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara is considered as an example of how local categories might transcend materials-based taxonomic systems.

Slaves as Gifts to Accompany Letters: A Critical Study of the Bo’ Abdul Kadim

This study discusses the tradition of letters in the kingdom of Bima, especially concerning giving enslaved people as gifts to accompany letters. The data for this study were taken from the manuscript bundle of bo’ (official royal records) during the reign of Sultan Abdul Kadim Muhammad Shah (1751–1773). Now, the manuscript is part of the collection of the Samparaja Cultural Museum, Bima, West Nusa Tenggara and is coded C.011 Bo. Within the manuscript bundle, we found 117 (out of a total of 548) letters discussing slaves and slavery in the Bima kingdom. We first used philological research methods, then these texts were analysed with historical records to obtain a complete understanding of slaves and slavery in the 18th century AD societal traditions. The results showed that slaves giving as a gift accompanying the letter was a symbol of respect for the recipient of the letter, which was following the Malay correspondence tradition. For local rulers, slaves were the most valuable treasure. Slaves were also a determinant of social status among the nobility in the past. This practice applies not only in Bima but throughout the Malay land and even Southeast Asia.

EXCAVATIONS IN THE ANCIENT THEATRE OF SPARTA, 2008

This article presents the results of the 2008 excavation in the ancient theatre of Sparta conducted by the British School at Athens and the Ephorate of Antiquities of Laconia. Focused on the west side of the cavea, work aimed to locate the southern edge of the Late Antique settlement between the theatre and the sanctuary of Athena Chalkioikos; to establish the northern limits of the Late Antique settlement over the former orchestra; and to establish a more precise ceramic characterisation and chronology for the Early–Middle Byzantine period in Sparta. The area between settlement clusters on the acropolis and over the former orchestra was essentially open, with just a Byzantine terrace wall and path recorded. In the north-west part of the former cavea, a tomb built in the late eighth or early ninth century AD was used at least until the late thirteenth century for the burial of c. 29 individuals. This article presents the first results of a bioarchaeological study of the human remains, and studies of Byzantine pottery from the tomb interior and from the backfill of the pit in which the tomb was built (the latter including a notable quantity of Early Byzantine domestic ware). The 2008 findings are set in the larger context of research on post-antique phases in the theatre (drawing on the British School at Athens Archive) and on the material culture and urban topography of Byzantine Sparta. Almost all excavated contexts contained residual material of all periods. The article concludes with short catalogues of material which pre-dates the construction of the theatre and of inscriptions of all periods.

Novel application of SANS provides quantitative non-destructive identification of forming techniques in late Roman and early medieval pottery from Pannonia

Within archaeological studies of ancient pottery, understanding the techniques used to form vessels from unfired clay provides significant information on the history of technology and economic systems, as well as wider cultural practices and social interactions. We introduce here a new analytical methodology, using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) to investigate pottery forming techniques through the preferential orientation of nanoscale objects within pottery fabrics. Significantly, SANS is non-destructive, suitable for both coarse and fine-textured pottery fabrics, provides quantitative data, enables fast-throughput of samples, and is not significantly affected by surface modifications occurring after the primary forming stage. The use of SANS is systematically investigated through over 400 measurements of experimental vessels, and also compared with X-ray microtomography and neutron tomography. The results show that SANS can be used to differentiate wheel-throwing, coil-building, percussion-building, and coil-wheeling techniques. The archaeological application of SANS is demonstrated through a case study of 50 late Roman and early medieval (fourth–sixth century AD) pottery sherds from Hungary, spanning the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the arrival of Barbarian polities into the region. The findings show a transition in production from predominantly wheel-throwing to coil-wheeling, but also coil-building, percussion-building, percussion-wheeling, and drawing. Such changes appear to reflect the disintegration of large-scale centrally organised Roman economic systems, and the diversification of production, consistent with the more diversified technological and cultural backgrounds of the producers themselves.

APOLOGETIKA IRENEUS KEPADA KAUM BIDAT YANG MEMPERTENTANGKAN KEILAHIAN YESUS

Topics about the Trinity, Christology, as well as topics about heretics are always debatable topics. It's not only happening at the present time but has also started since the first centuries, during the time of the church fathers. Irenaeus is a Christian figure who is known as the father of the church, also at the time when he was dealing with the teachings of Gnosticism, and how was Irenaeus’ view in dealing with Gnosticism as well as explaining Christology. This article is a descriptive description of Irenaeus' Christology as a contrast to the development of Gnostic Christology in the second century AD, so the method used is descriptive qualitative. The purpose of this article is so that Christians can understand Christology correctly. This article is not only meant to be a historical depiction, but also to show its continuity with the post-Enlightenment Christological dynamics as proposed by William Bousset who attempted to place Paul's Christology in the context of Gnosticism.

Pakaian Diraja Melayu: Kain Tenggarung dari Sudut Sosio Budaya Melayu.

Tenggarung cloth is a type of traditional Malay woven textile woven by Malay weavers. Around the 19th century AD, Tenggarung cloth was worn by the Royal family and Malay nobility during official government and state ceremonies. This Tenggarung fabric is used as the Malay Royal clothing, especially in the states of Pahang, Terengganu, and Kedah. It is used especially by Malay Royal relatives who have a title. Now Tenggarung cloth has become less and less known and even less produced by Malay textile weavers due to the lack of demand from the local market in addition to the dumping of textiles from outside such as brocade cloth from India and Pakistan. This research is to study Tenggarung cloth as Malay Royal clothing from a Malay socio-cultural point of view. This research uses qualitative methods in the process of collecting research data through two methods, namely primary and secondary. Analytical research is conducted through observation on the visual collection of Tenggarung cloth as well as its historical records. Meanwhile, the purpose of this study is also to provide more information to the community about Tenggarung cloth as a traditional Malay textile from the aspects of culture, history, heritage and the value of the beauty of the Royal Malay clothing.

Food and Environment During the Late Roman Age at the Site of Alba Fucens (Abruzzi, Italy)

Archaeobotanical analyses in Italy are uneven in terms of geographical and chronological distribution. Amongst the different regions, Abruzzi is poorly represented, with only one study covering the Roman Age. In this framework, the analyses carried out on carpological remains collected from the Late Roman (late 5th–early 6th century AD) filling of a well in the Sanctuary of Hercules in Alba Fucens represents an important addition to the state of the art. The plant assemblage consists of over 1500 remains attributed to 68 different taxa. These are partly represented by gathered fruit plants, such as Corylus avellana, Juglans regia and Sambucus nigra, while cereals and pulses are missing. An interesting aspect is represented by evergreen plants (Pinus pinea and Cupressus sempervirens) that are likely to have been used for ritual purposes rather than for human consumption. Finally, the impressive amount of ruderal and spontaneous plants represents a unicum for this type of study, allowing us to describe the past environment surrounding Alba Fucens, characterized by substantial water availability, Apennine grasslands and influenced by human presence.

Surgical Ethics in the Safavid Era, 16th Century AD.

Medicine-and specifically surgery and surgical ethics-have long been part of the history of science. Surgical ethics play a pivotal role in ensuring successful outcomes and maintaining the highest standards of patient care. It includes the ethics of surgeons, the responsibility of surgeons, surgical errors, and the competence of a surgeon. Many works have been written about surgery, including during Iran's Safavid period (1501 to 1736)-a period in which a surgeon needed to have a set of moral principles in addition to practical surgical skills. One of the most valuable is Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh, written by military surgeon Hakim Mohammad in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this work, Ḥakim Muhāmmad dedicates a chapter specifically to the topic of surgical ethics, aiming to provide moral and legal recommendations for surgeons in addition to explaining surgical techniques and methods. Some of these recommendations include improving surgical skills through observation and practical training, paying attention to hygiene to prevent the spread of infection, and giving patients hope for recovery. Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh is a landmark text in the history of surgical ethics.

Roman White Marbles in Northern Marche Region (Italy): An Archaeometric Provenance Study

Archaeometric investigations were conducted on Roman marble statues, engraved slabs, and memorial bases discovered in various archaeological sites located in the present Marche Region (Italy), including Fanum Fortunae, Pisaurum, and Potentia. These artefacts are currently housed in the Archaeologic Museum of Fano, the Archaeologic Museum of Pesaro, and the Archaeologic Museum of Porto Recanati (Macerata). Spanning from the Republican age to the Severan dynasty and up until the middle of the fourth century AD, these archaeological artefacts attest to the existence of numerous urbanized Roman colonies adorned with monuments and marble decorations. Mineralogical and petrographic examinations, along with C-O stable isotopic and chemical analyses (MgO and Sr), were carried out to both characterize the marble features and determine their provenance. This research aimed to delineate the specific use and distribution of these marbles across different chronological periods. The results indicated that Proconnesian marble was mainly used in the engraved slabs from Fanum Fortunae, with one exception in which Pentelic marble was identified. The sculptures from Fanum Fortunae and Potentia were carved from white marbles, including Lunense and Parian marbles (Parian-1 and Parian-2 types), with limited use of Pentelic and Thasian marbles, notably the Thasian-3 variety. Memorial bases from Pisaurum were identified to be made from Parian, Proconnesian, and Thasianmarbles. The archaeometric provenance of the different marbles was correlated with the archaeological dating of the artefacts to establish a chronological framework describing their use over time. This work provides an opportunity to appreciate Roman artifacts crafted from precious white marbles, which are housed in various museums throughout the Marche Region. The archaeometric investigation offers a significant contribution to the dissemination of knowledge and serves as a valuable tool for the enhancement of this archaeological and cultural heritage, potentially informing policies aimed at promoting geotourism.