Central-local Relations Research Articles

Local Government Modernisation in England: A Critical Review of the LGMA Evaluation Studies

New Labour has subjected English local government to an unparalleled period of reform. This article reviews the Local Government Modernisation Agenda evaluation studies commissioned by central government. The review identifies valuable insights from the studies into the contemporary state of English local government, central government and central–local relations. However, the studies also illustrate the need for research on public service reform to include analyses of the political origins of reform policies and the political–bureaucratic issues involved in their implementation. It is also argued that future research needs to rediscover the value of studying local politics ‘in the round’, the impact of socio-economic and non-local factors on local policy outcomes and the role of new sources of policy influence in the channels of central–local relations.

Urban Planning in Portugal in the Twentieth Century

The purpose of this paper is to identify the main periods in the history of urban planning in Portugal, the prevailing planning theories and its practical results, in the twentieth century. The research is based on two hypotheses: first, economic and social processes ('structure'), uneven in time and space, define the framework within which the different public and private stakeholders act ('agency'); second, a highly complex inter-relation between 'structure' and 'agency' is responsible for the different forms of urban planning. These hypotheses were tested taking into consideration the political and economic contexts, the development model adopted by the state, central-local relations in the field of urban planning, the legal planning framework, the dominant planning ideas and its practical application.

Authority of the Governor and the Provincial Party in the Central-Local Relations in Lao P.D.R.:

Authority of the Governor and the Provincial Party in the Central-Local Relations in Lao P.D.R.:

From Local Experiments to National Policy: The Origins of China's Distinctive Policy Process

China's national policy formulation undergone economic transformation and shaped the making of policies in promotion of private business and stock market regulation. China's distinctive process of central-local interaction in policy generation is one of its core strengths in reforming its economy.

Reconfiguring the State: Trends in Territorial Governance in European States

Multi-level governance appeared in the 1990s as a concept which sought to capture the changing relationships between different territorial levels of government in the EU. The concept was important as it drew to attention to important changes in territorial governance that were occurring at this time. This article steps back to analyse wider changes in the nature and form of the Welfare State, and the consequences of this for territorial governance. It argues that there are distinct trends in contemporary territorial governance: greater political as opposed to simple administrative decentralization; more asymmetry and diversity; a shift from a ‘principal-agent’ to a ‘choice’ model of central–local relations; great scope for experimentation; more non-hierarchical relations; new patterns of fiscal relations.

Win–Win? Early experience from local area agreements

Local Area Agreements (LAAs) are a mechanism for delivering improved outcomes for local people, through recasting governance relationships between central government and localities and between local agencies. This paper assesses the effectiveness of LAAs in reforming these critical relationships, drawing on research carried out in 2004–06 into the round one and two negotiations. These early negotiations highlighted the complexity of ‘central–local relations’; a coherent approach across Whitehall was hampered by differences in departmental culture and in the nature of relationships with local delivery agencies, while the new role for Government Offices was ambiguous. Nevertheless the early LAAs represented a major step forward in terms of local–central relations. Within localities, the process of developing LAAs proved challenging and highlighted governance weaknesses; however in the main participants report that partnerships have been greatly strengthened as a result. These early experiences provided rich learning, and policy has developed significantly since the pilots. At the time this research ended there was not yet any conclusive evidence on the balance of costs and benefits. However, over time LAAs have the potential to bring about a transformation in governance relationships and, in turn, the delivery of services to address cross-cutting outcomes.

Tensions and cooperation in a multilevel system: Integrating district councils in city government in Bergen

This article deals with the fact that central–local relations in a multilevel system often seems to create tensions. A district council reform in the city of Bergen, Norway intended to decentralise authority within the political system of the city ended up with a more centralised relationship between central and local levels. With this observation as a point of departure we categorise decentralisation according to the degree of discretion available for the local level concerning a) objectives and b) means to reach the objectives. By combining these dimensions we identify two types of decentralisation; administrative and political. We claim that all central–local relations will exert features of both types. The mere presence of political bodies is therefore not sufficient to characterise a specific relation as politically decentralised. We conclude the article by discussing some conditions for successful multilevel governance. The conditions draw on experiences from the Bergen district reform, but may have relevance in a wider context.

Local Governance and Climate Change: Reflections on the Swedish Experience

The focus of this article is the Swedish experience of local governance and climate change, including mitigation and adaptation. The municipal response to these two challenges is set within a broader policy context that acknowledges Sweden as a pioneer in environmental governance, including its comparatively high ambitions with regard to the reduction of greenhouse ga emissions. Central–local relations in climate policy are analysed, and climate change mitigation and adaptation are exemplified by some snapshots of municipal initiatives, including the popular habit of networking between municipalities within as well as across national borders. In conclusion we briefly evaluate the Swedish local governance experience of climate change mitigation and adaptation to date as characterized by radical rhetoric and ambitious goals combined with a lot of promising initiatives, although still with fairly modest results in terms of tangible outcomes. Finally, we reflect upon what we consider to be the most important questions for future research on local governance and climate change.

Making central-local relations work: Comparing America and China environmental governance systems

The challenge of making central requirements work at local levels is a common problem for environmental governance throughout the world. Countries can learn from one another's approaches, but must understand the local con- text in which they are set. This paper compares the features of the China and US environmental governance systems that need be understood by those working between the systems. Key features include: (1) common values which shape the environmental governance choices in both countries, but which may have different practical meanings in each country; (2) America's common law-based environmental governance system, and China's civil law system, which involves plan(s) as well as law; (3) America's Federal central-local system, and China's unitary central local system. This paper con- cludes by suggesting areas in which further comparative understanding may be of value, including: (1) better under- standing of the role of plan and law in China's governance system; (2) comparing the American Federal-state agreement system for implementation of environmental law with the China central-local system of target responsibility agreements for plan implementation; (3) improving understanding of nongovernmental resources needed to assure compliance with environmental laws and plans; (4) identifying institutions that can coordinate central-local and cross-border environmental governance.

Indicators as a Governmental Technology? The Lessons of Community-Based Sustainability Indicator Projects

There has been much interest in the neo-Foucauldian framework of governmentality as a way of understanding contemporary policy processes. In this paper I examine evidence from a case study of local sustainability indicators in the light of this framework. The role of indicators as a potential governmental technology is addressed, covering issues of their ability to objectify sustainability the scope for altered subjectivities, their positioning within central–local government relations, and the construction and responsibilisation of communities, particularly in urban regeneration contexts. I conclude that the use of indicators at the community level may tell us more about central–local relations within contemporary governance than about the construction of subjects and objects to enable governance with regard to sustainable development.

Institutional root of the chinese budget crisis: fiscal decline and unbalanced central-local relationship

Although the Chinese economy has experienced a strong and rapid growth due to the success of its economic reform, the Chinese central government faces a stern fiscal decline. The fiscal problem has undermined the ability of the central government in completing many crucial governing tasks. By examining the institutional root of the fiscal problem, this paper argues that the fiscal decline is part of the ironic corollary of the decentralization strategy of China’s economic reform which produces a “weak center, strong local” outcome. To fully address the problem, China should undertake major institutional reforms to redefine as well as institutionalize the fiscal roles of different levels of government.

Comparative British Central-Local Relations

This article examines three key, possible post-devolution trends relating to central-local relations in England, Scotland and Wales. First, the Scottish and Welsh cases indicate that devolution does not inevitably lead to regional centralism and that central-local relations at the regional or intermediate levels are less competitive and more collaborative where a power balance or symmetry exists between the intermediate and the local level. Second, post-devolution differences in how the public services are being restructured in England, Scotland and Wales suggest that the trend towards governance is not immutable but at least partly a matter of political choice. Third, even so the post-devolution policy similarities between the metropolitan centre and the two devolved territories remain pronounced with a pattern of continued policy tracking, through which the dominance of the metropolitan centre is maintained indirectly rather than directly.

Study on the Local Area Agreement from the perspective of central-local relation

Study on the Local Area Agreement from the perspective of central-local relation

Prefectoral Systems and Central?Local Government Relations in Scandinavia

As prefectoral systems are generally regarded to be systems that underpin and serve as the basis for centralization, this article examines how they have developed and how they work, and why they are still considered necessary in decentralized Scandinavia. The article finds that the prefect's authority towards the municipalities varies in Scandinavia. The Norwegian and Swedish prefectures hold rather powerful roles, while the Danish ones do not. The article suggests that this may have something to do with the need for an institution that brings about cohesion and coordination. Prefectoral systems are basically pragmatic solutions to the problem of enforcing national standards and common values across regions and municipalities, but their role may vary with institutional conditions created by local government reforms. The article further suggests that the authority of the prefecture varies with the character of central-local relations, and that it is vulnerable to changes in dominant political goals and values.

Explaining the Sources of de facto Federalism in Reform China: Intergovernmental Decentralization, Globalization, and Central–Local Relations

China does not have a federalist system of government. Nevertheless, with deepening reform and openness, China's political system in terms of central–local relations is functioning more and more like federalism. Federalism as a functioning system in China has been understudied. This paper defines the political system existing in China as de facto federalism, and attempts to explore the sources and dynamics of this de facto federalism. China's de facto federalism was mainly driven by two related factors, i.e. decentralization and globalization. This paper argues that while economic decentralization in the 1980s led to the formation of de facto federalism, globalization since the 1990s has accelerated this process and generated increasingly high pressure on the Chinese leadership to institutionalize existing de facto federalism.

Central-Local Relations, Inter-Organisational Coordination and Policy Implementation in Urban Bangladesh

What happens to policy implementation when the process suffers from problems of coordination? In this article, the focus is on how central-local relations create inter-organisational coordination problems, which in the long run affect the implementation of policies in urban governance. In the case of the Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC) in Bangladesh, the central-local relationship is determined by the political identity of the mayor. By virtue of his attachment with the party in power, the RCC receives more favours especially in terms of the allocation of resources from the central government. These resources facilitate the completion of many development projects.

Corruption and local governance: the double identity of Chinese local governments in market reform

This paper examines China's corruption in the context of its changing central–local relations. It contends that it is not so much decentralization as the incompleteness of power devolution that has contributed to the spreading of corruption in China. The incompleteness can be seen in the development of the double identity of local government as both a state political agent and a local economic principal. As state agents, local governments obtain increased discretionary power to make and implement policies and, at the same time, they also assume the role of local economic principals to protect, promote and even directly manage local economies. The dual identity places both broad discretionary power and immediate economic benefits within easy reach of local officials. Focusing on two prevalent forms of corruption in China today, illegal land transfers and ‘little money lockers’, the paper shows how the deep involvement of local officials in economic affairs, coupled with unbridled discretionary power, provides opportunities and incentives for corruption.

Measuring local autonomy: A decision-making approach

In studies on central–local relations it is common to assess local autonomy in a deductive way. The extent of local autonomy is determined by measuring the central legal and financial competence, after which the remaining room for local decision-making is determined. The outcome of this indirect method is that the autonomy of local government tends to be systematically underestimated. As an alternative this paper introduces a decision-making approach in which local decisions are systematically weighed on three dimensions: agenda setting, freedom in choices, and dependency. Using Dutch data, the authors come to the conclusion that a locally oriented perspective leads to a more accurate and positive judgement of the autonomy of local government.

Differentiated Actors: Central–Local Politics in China's Rural Tax Reforms

How decisions and policies are made and implemented? This classical question in political science has attracted a considerable literature amongst observers of realpolitik in China, with its continental size, 1.3 billion population and five layers of government. Mirroring the move away from the traditional dualism of ‘top-down’ versus ‘bottom-up’ approaches in the general implementation literature, recent literature on Chinese central–local politics emphasizes the co-participation of central and local actors in decision-making and the dialectical interactive relationship between central and local power. Goodman recognizes, for instance, that central and local actors have differentiated roles to play in decision-making. Li makes the case of interactive central–local power, calling for a reconceptualization of central-local relations in a non-zero-sum schema. Recent studies on the ‘Open Up the West’ national policy augment the claim for ‘disaggregating’ China, and the relevance of the provincial, regional and local as levels and foci of analysis. Against the traditional emphasis over central predominance versus provincial power, this body of literature, adopting a ‘non-dualistic’ approach to power, highlights the co-existence of central and local power in a diffuse, complex decision-making process.

Is Enabling Enough? Tensions and Dilemmas in New Labour's Strategies for Joining-up Local Governance

Central to New Labour's ambition to transform public policy and public services was the development of joined-up government'. This article considers the experience of joining-up' at the local level, through one programme of reform, the ‘local government modernisation agenda’ (LGMA). Drawing on published research from evaluations of the LGMA this article argues that three key strategies for joining-up' locally are evident in the policies of the LGMA: empowerment, endorsement and enticement. Each strategy contains a particular vision of joined-up' local governance and what should shape it. However in practice each strategy was diluted, undermined or challenged by the existence of alternative perspectives. The article proposes that there are powerful undercurrents within the policy environment that help explain these tensions, in particular the desire of some interests to maintain prevailing central-local relations. It also highlights cross-currents that might have a greater impact on the potential for realising joined-up' local governance such as the comprehensive performance assessment. The article concludes with some reflections on which strategy is most likely to be effective in the current policy and political environment and examines the ‘fit’ of newer policy instruments such as Local Area Agreements with this proposed strategy.