Central Guatemala Research Articles

A novel geothermal-PV led energy system analysis on the case of the central American countries Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica

Transitioning to renewables for all purposes in Central America is imperative to mitigating climate change and the impact of COVID-19, reducing fossil fuel imports and enhancing energy security. Research on integrating high shares of renewable energy in the region is still lacking. However, the variability of renewable energy is often raised as a concern. In this context, we present a novel solar PV-geothermal led energy system analysis for the case of Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica, using the LUT Energy System Transition Model for detailed pathway analyses linked to state-of-the-art resource data. This study contributes to the value of hybrid solutions based on geothermal energy and solar PV as the centerpiece of overall supply applied to the energy transition discussion in these countries, which requires further research in countries or regions with similar climatic and resource conditions. We find that complementarity between solar PV and geothermal could be cost-competitive with improved system stability, where the need for battery storage decreases thanks to dispatchable geothermal power. The results illustrate the advantage of a fully renewable energy system, sector coupling, and high electrification rates as the most cost-efficient pathway by 2050. A new perspective is provided and is relevant for energy planners and policymakers in the region and globally.

Tracing Eastern Mayan Perfect ‐maχ: Outcomes of Direct Affix Borrowing in the Sacapulas Corridor

AbstractSeveral Eastern Mayan languages of central highland Guatemala have an innovative perfect participle suffix ‐maχ, whose distribution suggests that it diffused areally. This article describes the innovation of ‐maχ in Poqom and argues that it spread to other Mayan languages in a newly proposed contact area called the ‘Sacapulas Corridor’. I explore three case studies where the distribution of the perfect participle ‐maχ changed in the recipient language: functional change to a general passive in Uspantek, matter replication without pattern replication in Sakapultek and Sipakapense, and contact‐induced multiple exponence in Northern Mam. The diffusion of ‐maχ exemplifies how structural similarity and bilingualism between the source and recipient language can facilitate direct affix borrowing.

Comparison of the nutrient composition of eggs produced in the Guatemalan highlands during the wet and dry seasons.

The potential of chicken eggs as a nutritionally complete protein and source of key micronutrients during the first 1000 days post-conception has been progressively recognized across the globe, particularly in resource-poor settings. Fluctuation of egg nutrient content by season is relatively unknown, which may influence international food composition databases and outcomes in intervention studies using egg supplementation. To better interpret the findings of The Saqmolo' Project, we conducted comprehensive nutrient analyses on eggs produced during the wet and dry seasons in the highlands of central Guatemala. We randomly collected 36 shell eggs from a local farm during both seasons, hard-boiled, and prepared them for transport to the United States, where they were pooled and assessed for their nutrient composition. Methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, the American Oil Chemists Society, and the American Association of Cereal Chemists were utilized to determine total energy, moisture, ash, total protein, total fat, fatty acids, total carbohydrates, 12 vitamins, 11 minerals, and carotenoids, by season, in some instances with modifications. Differences in nutrient composition between de-shelled hard-boiled eggs collected between seasons were assessed using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey's family error rate comparison test. Most nutrients in eggs produced in the highlands of central Guatemala differed negligibly (but statistically significantly) based on seasonality. Only vitamins A and E, folate, choline, and calcium fluctuated at clinically significant levels relative to the AI/RDA for infants 7-12 months. Total energy, protein, trans fatty acids, moisture, and vitamin D3 levels did not differ between seasons (p > .05). Further multi-year sampling is needed to examine how seasonal variation affects the nutrient composition of eggs. These data may be used to supplement existing national and regional food composition databases.

Barriers and Facilitators for Successful Community Forestry: Lessons Learned and Practical Applications From Case Studies in India and Guatemala

Internationally, numerous examples have been of efforts to promote community-based forest management (CBFM) through forest decentralization programs that promote forest conservation and livelihood improvements. Although there are successful examples, those efforts have been met with mixed success. This article proposes an analytical framework for evaluating the case studies of CBFM, highlighting the interconnection between community capital, land tenure, and markets. The analytical framework is used to analyze factors contributing to community forestry success focusing on two case studies in central India and northern Guatemala’s Maya Biosphere Reserve. We evaluate how the interplay of community capitals (i.e., community skills and resources), tenure, and markets is crucial for the successful replication of community forestry efforts. Specifically, we demonstrate that community capital factors such as social (bonding and linking), human, natural, and political; tenure factors such as a legal basis for rights, implementation of rights policy, community engagement in decision-making related to rights, withdrawal rights; and market factors such as market availability for the product, market accessibility for the producers, and profitability are the most important for facilitating and replicating community forestry efforts. Our framework can be used by nonprofits and policymakers to engage with community forestry planning as well as for monitoring and evaluation.

S1612 High Seroprevalence of Helicobacter pylori and CagA/VacA Virulence Factors in Northern Central America

Introduction: Helicobacter pylori (Hp) infection is the leading cause of gastric cancer (GC). Northern Central America is the principal LMIC region in the Western Hemisphere and has among the highest GC incidence. We examined the Hp seroprevalence and active infection, and the Hp virulence factors VacA/CagA positivity of healthy individuals in the region using a novel validated Hp assay. Methods: Healthy volunteers from Western Honduras and Central Guatemala were recruited. The novel Hp Multiplex assay was used to evaluate 13 Hp antigens (CagA, VacA, GroEl, UreA, HP0231, HP0305, NapA, HpaA, HcpC, HP1564, Catalase, Cad, HyuA). Per protocol, Hp positivity was defined as positivity for ≥4 antigens, and active infection was defined as positivity to a combination of 2 out of the 4 antigens (VacA, GroEl, HcpC, HP1564). Descriptive statistics for continuous variables and frequencies for categorical variables were computed. Categorical variables were compared using Chi2. Results: Overall, 1,143 adults were tested with the multiplex assay (Guatemala n=444, Honduras=699). The mean age was 54.2±14.5 years, 46.2% were male, 60% of individuals were from rural settings and 56% lived above >1000 meters. Hp seropositivity was 87%, and 83% had active Hp infection. CagA and VacA seropositivity was 82% and 75% respectively. No significant differences were noted according to country, age group, gender, or rural/urban location. The most frequent occupations were domestic work and agriculture (40% and 19% respectively). Around half (53%) of individuals had a refrigerator, and 34% had an electric or gas stove. 44% and 16% were either current or former tobacco smokers in Guatemala and Honduras, respectively. 43% noted alcohol use (Table). Conclusion: An extremely high seroprevalence of Hp and CagA/VacA is observed in Honduras and Guatemala and is representative of Northern Central America. This correlates with the high burden of GC in the region, and has implications for regional prevention programs as well as immigrant populations in the U.S. Table 1. - General characteristics of population (N=1,143) Total Guatemala Honduras N 1143 444 699 Age, mean (SD) 54.2 (14.5) 55.4 (10.7) 53.4 (16.5) Age, categories 18-45 309 (27.0%) 90 (20.3%) 219 (31.3%) 45-54 297 (26.0%) 138 (31.1%) 159 (22.7%) 55-64 269 (23.5%) 122 (27.5%) 147 (21.0%) >65 268 (23.4%) 94 (21.2%) 174 (24.9%) Sex Female 615 (53.8%) 255 (57.4%) 360 (51.5%) Male 528 (46.2%) 189 (42.6%) 339 (48.5%) Rural setting 683 (59.8%) 272 (61.3%) 411 (58.8%) Altitude (mamsl), mean (SD) 1087.9 (453.7) 1250.8 (644.6) 983.4 (209.2) Altitude ( >1000mamsl) 641 (56.4%) 272 (61.3%) 369 (53.3%) Occupation Professional 38 (3.3%) 9 (2.0%) 29 (4.1%) Technician 39 (3.4%) 2 (0.5%) 37 (5.3%) Artisan or vendor 239 (20.9%) 182 (41.0%) 57 (8.2%) Construction 44 (3.8%) 21 (4.7%) 23 (3.3%) Agriculture 221 (19.3%) 54 (12.2%) 167 (23.9%) Household/domestic work 457 (40.0%) 144 (32.4%) 313 (44.8%) Other or not available 105 (9.2%) 32 (7.2%) 73 (10.4%) BMI, median (IQR) 25.7 (22.7, 29.7) 27.4 (23.9, 30.7) 24.8 (21.9, 28.7) BMI, categories Underweight 36 (3.2%) 5 (1.1%) 31 (4.5%) Normal 471 (41.9%) 148 (33.6%) 323 (47.3%) Overweight 352 (31.3%) 155 (35.2%) 197 (28.8%) Obese 264 (23.5%) 132 (30.0%) 132 (19.3%) Tobacco smoker 310 (27.1%) 196 (44.1%) 114 (16.3%) Recent antibiotic use 78 (6.8%) 55 (12.4%) 23 (3.3%) Refrigerator use 608 (53.2%) 200 (45.0%) 408 (58.4%) Alcohol 488 (42.7%) 321 (72.3%) 167 (23.9%) Electric or gas stove 387 (33.9%) 265 (59.7%) 122 (17.5%) H. pylori serostatus (positive) 993 (86.9%) 387 (87.2%) 606 (86.7%) H. pylori active infection 949 (83.0%) 378 (85.1%) 571 (81.7%) CagA status (positive) 941 (82.4%) 402 (90.7%) 539 (77.1%) VacA status (positive) 861 (75.4%) 368 (83.1%) 493 (70.5%)

An updated list of butterflies (Lepidoptera, Papilionoidea) of two Guatemalan seasonally dry forests.

Guatemala has a great diversity of butterflies, although there have been few intensive surveys on Lepidoptera in the country so far. We present an updated list of 218 species in 149 genera, 19 subfamilies, and six families of butterflies sampled at two seasonally dry forests in the Salamá and Motagua valleys in central and eastern Guatemala, by integrating new data from field surveys conducted in 2014-2021 into our previously published data (Yoshimoto et al. 2018, 2019), with Amblyscirteselissaelissa Godman, 1900, Repensflorus (Godman, 1900), and Niconiadesnikko Hayward, 1948 (Hesperiidae: Hesperiinae) as new country records. We collected a hairstreak species, Chalybshassan (Stoll, 1790) (Lycaenidae: Theclinae), at the Motagua Valley site, representing the second record for Guatemala since the early 20th century, after we rediscovered it at the Salamá Valley site in 2011 and 2012 (Yoshimoto and Salinas-Gutiérrez 2015). Nymphalidae and Hesperiidae had larger numbers of species than the other four families at both sites. In Pieridae and Nymphalidae, species composition was similar between the sites, whereas in Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, and Papilionidae it differed more greatly between the sites. These results confirm the relatively high lepidopteran diversity of Guatemalan dry forests, noteworthy for the small areas that comprise the study sites, and represent marked similarities and differences in butterfly fauna and phenology within these forests.

La Unión Monzogranite: geochronology and significance of the Jurassic arc in the Sula Terrane, Guatemala

La Unión pluton (LUP) belongs to the metamorphic and igneous Sula Terrane (ST) of Central Guatemala, limited to the north by the Motagua fault (MF) and to the south by the Jocotán-Chamelecón fault system (J-CH-FS). The basement of the ST is characterized by the high-grade metamorphic rocks belonging to the Las Ovejas Complex and the extensive low-grade San Diego phyllite, the latter in tectonic contact with LUP. A combination of field data, petrographic and geochemical analyses as well as geochronologic dating by U-Pb method, allow to classify LUP as a monzogranite with an age of 170 Ma (average of two dated samples), characterized by high-K calcalkaline and peraluminous affinity and with a REE pattern typical of a continental magmatic arc. Some trace-elements behavior and a comparison of similar-age units found elsewhere in eastern, central and southern Mexico, allow to associate its formation to the lithospheric thinning and extension that occurred during the breakup of Pangea and the opening of the Gulf of Mexico.

Kaqchikel Maya and Spanish: Attitudes, domains, and acquisition

Aims and objectives: The goals of this study are to examine attitudes toward Kaqchikel Maya and Spanish in domains of life in a village and a town in central Guatemala and to examine the influence of indigenous participants’ attitudes toward Kaqchikel on Kaqchikel acquisition. Method: The study draws on fieldwork employing interviews and a sociolinguistic questionnaire. To investigate attitudes, we employed questions focusing on the importance of Kaqchikel and Spanish for domains of community life. The questionnaire also tested conversational ability in Kaqchikel. Data and analysis: Responses to the survey questions are examined in quantitative analyses of valuations of the importance of Kaqchikel and Spanish in domains for participants from the village and the town and of the importance of Kaqchikel for indigenous adults and students. Also gauged through quantitative analysis are correlations between attitudes toward the importance of Kaqchikel in the domains and acquired conversational ability in Kaqchikel of indigenous adults and students. Findings: The findings underscore differences and similarities in attitudes toward the two languages in the town and the village as well as differences in the attitudes of indigenous adults and students. The effects of instrumental and integrative attitudes toward Kaqchikel on Kaqchikel acquisition are highlighted for the students. Originality: Points of originality include the size of the participant sample (252), the breakdown of the sample by village and town, and by non-indigenous and indigenous participants and age groups. They include the focus on attitudes toward Kaqchikel as related to the acquisition of conversational ability in Kaqchikel for indigenous adults and students. Implications: The study confirms a shift in attitudes toward the importance of Kaqchikel for indigenous students compared to indigenous adults. For Kaqchikel-language programs for youth, the study underscores the need for fomenting awareness of the importance of Kaqchikel in domains of community life.

A retrospective analysis of emergency department usage in rural and semi-urban indigenous Guatemalan populations

Functioning healthcare systems provide emergency medical care. Disparities exist in accessibility and availability of emergency care in low- and middle-income countries. We present a descriptive epidemiologic analysis of Emergency Department (ED) usage in a rural, indigenous Guatemalan population. San Lucas Tolimán is situated in central Guatemala. Hospital Parroquial de San Lucas offers emergency care to San Lucas Tolimán and surrounding villages. All ED visits between January 1st, 2016 and December 31st 2018 were recorded and analyzed. During the study period, 12,229 patient encounters occurred. Almost all patients identified as indigenous. Children comprised 43% of visits. Medical issues represented a majority (83%) of complaints. Respiratory (40%) and gastrointestinal disease (26%) were frequent presenting complaints. Almost all visits (83%) occurred during the day and evening hours. Trauma/surgical complaints were slightly more frequent at night. 93% of patients were discharged, while the rest were admitted or transferred. These data contribute to understanding of disease burden and emergency care needs and capacity in rural areas of low- and middle-income countries. This information may be used to inform local policy decisions, identify research priorities, and create training topics for local health care providers in Guatemala and other countries in this region.

Contextualizing Caves within an Animate Maya Landscape: Caves as Living Agents in the Past and Present

After groundbreaking work by multiple archaeologists in the latter half of the 20th century, caves in the Maya world are currently acknowledged as fundamentally ritual rather than domestic spaces. However, a more nuanced read of the anthropological literature and conversations with Indigenous collaborators in the past and present pushes us to move still farther and see caves not as passive contexts to contain ceremonies directed elsewhere but animate beings with unique identities and personalities in their own right. This article combines archaeological, ethnohistoric, and ethnographic documentation of Maya cave use in central Guatemala to build a foundation for examining caves as living beings, with particular attention played to the role they play as active agents in local politics and quotidian life. Through ritual offerings, neighboring residents and travelers maintain tight reciprocal relationships with specific caves and other geographic idiosyncrasies dotting the landscape to ensure the success of multiple important activities and the continued well-being of families and communities.

Trends in language choice and effects of choice on acquisition: Kaqchikel Maya and Spanish in central Guatemala

This study reveals trends in the choice of Kaqchikel Maya, Spanish, or both languages for household activities and by the generations, that is, the children, parents, and grandparents, in a village and a town in the central highlands of Guatemala. Similarities and differences between the village and town are described in both cases. The study also highlights the direct relationship between the language choice of parents and the acquisition of Kaqchikel by children. A total of 171 indigenous residents in the town and the village participated in the study. Findings are based on responses to a sociolinguistic questionnaire that also included measures of knowledge of Kaqchikel. Interviews were conducted by the authors working with bilingual Spanish and Kaqchikel Maya speaking assistants. The measures of knowledge of Kaqchikel were created by the bilingual assistants. The conclusion of this study includes discussion of limitations of current policies for promoting the Kaqchikel language through the education system and broadcasting media.

Opportunities for the conservation of migratory birds to benefit threatened resident vertebrates in the Neotropics

Neotropical countries receive financing and effort from temperate nations to aid the conservation of migratory species that move between temperate and tropical regions. If allocated strategically, these resources could simultaneously contribute to other conservation initiatives. In this study, we use novel distribution maps to show how those resources could aid planning for the recovery of threatened resident vertebrates.Using eBird‐based relative abundance estimates, we first identified areas with high richness of Neotropical migrant landbirds of conservation concern (23 species) during the stationary non‐breeding period. Within these areas, we then identified threatened species richness, projected forest loss and conducted a prioritization for 1,261 red‐listed vertebrates using Terrestrial Area‐of‐Habitat maps.Richness for migrants was greatest along a corridor from the Yucatan peninsula south to the northern Andes but also included south‐west Mexico and Hispaniola. Protected areas account for 22% of this region while 21% is at risk of forest loss. Within this focal region for migrants, all four vertebrate groups showed hotspots of threatened species richness along the west and east Andean slopes. Taxa‐specific hotspots included montane areas of southern Mexico and central Guatemala (amphibians/reptiles) and the entire east slope of the Colombian East Andes (mammals).Our prioritization highlighted several areas of importance for conservation due to high threatened species richness and projected forest loss including (a) the Pacific dry forests of south‐west Mexico, (b) montane regions of northern Central America and (c) the west Andean slope of Colombia and Ecuador. At a landscape scale in southern Colombia, we show how conservation efforts for six Neotropical migrants could benefit 56 threatened residents that share a similar elevational range. Synthesis and applications. Funding and effort for migratory bird conservation also has potential to benefit threatened resident vertebrates in the Neotropics. Our study highlights how novel, high‐resolution information on species distributions and risk of forest loss can be integrated to identify priority areas for the two groups at regional and landscape scales. The approach and data can be further modified for more specific goals, such as within‐country initiatives.

Tectonically and climatically driven mountain-hopping erosion in central Guatemala from detrital <sup>10</sup>Be and river profile analysis

Abstract. The rise of a mountain range affects moisture circulation in the atmosphere and water runoff across the land surface, modifying the distribution of precipitation and drainage patterns in its vicinity. Water routing in turn affects erosion on hillslopes and incision in river channels on surrounding mountain ranges. In central Guatemala, two parallel, closely spaced mountain ranges formed during two consecutive pulses of uplift, the first between 12 and 7 Ma (Sierra de Chuacús–Sierra de las Minas), and the second after 7 Ma (Altos de Cuchumatanes). We explore the climatic and tectonic processes through which the rise of the most recent range drove the slowing of river incision and hillslope erosion over the previously uplifted range. The 40Ar/39Ar dating of perched volcanic deposits documents the sequential rise and incision of these mountain ranges. Terrestrial cosmogenic 10Be in river sediments indicates that currently hillslopes in the older range erode more slowly than in the younger range (20–150 vs. 300 m Myr−1). These differences mimic the current distribution of precipitation, with the younger range intercepting the atmospheric moisture before it reaches the older range. River channel steepness and deformation of paleovalleys in the new range further indicate that the younger range has been rising faster than the older range up to today. We review how atmospheric moisture interception and river long-profile adjustment to the rise of the new range have contributed to the decline of erosion rates over the old range. We also explore the consequences of this decline and of aridification on the topographic evolution of the older range. The older range undergoes a slow topographic decay, dominated by backwearing, by the stacking of slowly migrating erosion waves along the mountain flanks, and by the formation of pediments around its base. The morphology of the old range is therefore transitioning from that of a front range to that of a dry interior range.

What happened to the organic matter from the Upper Cretaceous succession in Guatemala, Central America?

Organic palynological content in rocks, which commonly occurs in aquatic and terrestrial sediments, is essential for sediment dating, palaeoenvironmental reconstructions and determination of hydrocarbon potential. Unfortunately, the palynological signal may be blurred or even completely destroyed by intra- and post-depositional diagenetic processes. Fossil shells of foraminifera constitute another tool for dating and/or palaeoenvironmental reconstructions and, unlike palynological matter, they are not affected by post-depositional oxidation or thermal alteration. Herein, we present a preliminary palynological study of Upper Cretaceous formations in northern and central Guatemala and we compare it to foraminiferal data. Rocks that are often full of foraminifera, visible without magnification, yielded monotonous palynofacies dominated by black-opaque equidimensional phytoclasts. The palynological signal may potentially be explained by: (i). unfavourable aquatic conditions and habitat; (ii). a high-sedimentation rate combined with organic matter dilution; (iii). organic matter oxidation related to subaerial exposure; (iv). post-depositional weathering and oxidation; (v). thermal conversion of organic matter during burial and/or interaction with volcanic intrusions. Due to the complicated tectonic history of the Yucatán region, all of these factors need more extensive discussion.

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Nutrition Research Network: The Saqmolo' Project Rationale and Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial Examining the Influence of Daily Complementary Feeding of Eggs on Infant Development and Growth in Guatemala

Adequate nutrition during the complementary feeding period is critical for optimal child growth and development and for promoting long-term educational attainment and economic potential. To prioritize limited public health resources, there is a need for studies that rigorously assess the influence of multicomponent integrated nutrition interventions in children younger than age 2 years in different contexts. This study aimed to describe the rationale and protocol for the Saqmolo’ Project using the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials (SPIRIT) guidelines. The Saqmolo’ (ie, “egg” in the Mayan language, Kaqchiquel) Project is an individually randomized, partially blinded, controlled comparative effectiveness trial to evaluate the influence of adding delivery of a single whole egg per day to local standard nutrition care (ie, growth monitoring, medical care, deworming medication, multiple micronutrient powders for point-of-use food fortification [chispitas], and individualized complementary and responsive feeding education for caregivers) for 6 months, compared with the local standard nutrition care package alone, on child development, growth, and diet quality measures in rural indigenous Mayan infants aged 6 to 9 months at baseline (N = 1,200). The study is being executed in partnership with the Wuqu’ Kawoq/Maya Health Alliance, a primary health care organization located in central Guatemala. Primary outcomes for this study are changes in global development scores, assessed using the Guide for Monitoring Global Development and the Caregiver Reported Child Development Instruments. Secondary outcomes include changes in infant hemoglobin, anthropometric measures (including z scores for weight for age, length for age, weight for length, and head circumference for age), and diet quality as measured using the World Health Organization’s infant and young child feeding indicators. The results of the Saqmolo’ Project may help to inform public health decision making regarding resource allocation for effective nutrition interventions during the complementary feeding period.

Chemical characterization of extracts from various parts of Salvia hispanica L. and their antibacterial activity

Plants have been an important source of phytomedicines for thousands of years. Salvia hispanica L. distributed in Central and Southern Mexico and Guatemala has potential medicinal properties. The current research focused on the chemical characterization of the plant extracts from leaf, seed, and flower parts using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC MS) analysis and evaluating its antibacterial effects. Results of antibacterial tests proved that the crude extracts could be potentially utilized in controlling some bacterial strains. The highest zone of inhibition (14.6 mm) was observed against the bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens at 50 µg/100 μL ethyl acetate flower extract. GC-MS analysis confirmed the occurrence of 49 and 34 different compounds in the ethyl acetate flower and leaf extract respectively. Many of them are used in industry for various applications like flavour and fragrance agent, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antitumor etc. These plant extracts which proved to be potentially effective can be used as natural alternative preventives to control food poisoning diseases and preserve foodstuff avoiding health hazards of chemical antimicrobial agent applications.

Filling gaps in the distribution of the four free-tailed bat species of the genus Nyctinomops Miller, 1902 (Mammalia, Chiroptera, Molossidae), with three new records for Guatemala

We found the four species of Nyctinomops Miller, 1902 living in sympatry in central Guatemala. All specimens were found dead under turbines of a wind farm. Nyctinomops femorosaccus (Merriam, 1889), was previously known from northern Mexico and southwestern United States, and this record extends its distribution at least 1150 km southward, representing the first record for Guatemala and Central America. Although N. aurispinosus (Peale, 1848) and N. macrotis (Gray, 1839) were already known from Central America (Honduras), and these are the first records for Guatemala.

Immigration Crisis: The United States Under President Donald J. Trump

Rising crime, homicide, economic despair, infant mortality. The common narrative of the situation in the Northern Triangle nations of Central America, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, points to these grim circumstances to explain the exodus of families leaving for America. But it is not the case that conditions have worsened there in recent years; the best available data show improvement in many socioeconomic measures. This article draws upon the best sources from the Northern Triangle, Mexico, US, and international organizations. Socioeconomic studies and analysis by universities, policy groups, and government agencies from the region provide details on the day-to-day experiences of ordinary people, the realities of poverty, crime, and violence. The conclusions from these studies do not always match common suppositions. Homicides are down, but El Salvador and Honduras remain two of the most dangerous countries in the world. In the Northern Triangle, economic growth has been above the regional average, while the percentage of families living in poverty in Guatemala is actually increasing as income distribution worsens. More Central American families are migrating to the USA than ever before, but far fewer total immigrants are coming to America as the immigration from Mexico has declined. This article concludes with policy recommendations. Since the US economy is creating more jobs than entrants into the workforce. US immigration policies should be adjusted to match economic needs and must be changed to reflect its highest humanitarian values.

A Clinically-Indolent Variant of Extranodal NK/T Cell Lymphoma with Unique Immunophenotypic Profile and Superior Outcome

Introduction Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type (ENKTL), is the most frequent NK-cell malignancy. It is typically associated with a highly aggressive course and extensive local tissue destruction. ENKTL, nasal type, is most common among East Asians and indigenous persons in Latin America, which may result from genetic predisposition, shared strains of EBV infection or other factors. We noted that a subset of patients with ENKTL in Guatemala present with more indolent disease. The clinical and histologic features of these indolent cases, including outcomes after treatment, have not been defined. Methods We reviewed clinical data from 68 patients with ENKTL at INCAN, the largest public cancer hospital in Guatemala, who underwent evaluation between 2006-2018. We confirmed the diagnosis of ENKTL using available paraffin-embedded biopsies based on immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization for 46 markers at Stanford University (O.S., Y.N.). We defined indolent cases as those lacking macroscopic necrosis, palate perforation, distant lesions (i.e. Stage II or greater), hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and B symptoms. Aggressive cases had one or more of these characteristics. Statistical analysis on categorical data was performed using Fisher's exact test. Results Fifty-three patients were confirmed to have ENKTL. The median age at the time of diagnosis was 43 years (range: 11-83) and 36 patients were male (68%). 75.7% of patients self-identified as Mayan ancestry and 85% were born or lived in central or western Guatemala. As outlined in the Table, 14 cases were classified as indolent and 39 were aggressive. Patients with indolent NKTCL were older (mean, 51 years vs. 41.5 years in the aggressive group; p=0.04). Patients with aggressive disease more commonly had anemia, lymphocytopenia and elevated serum LDH. Both indolent and aggressive cases typically had NK cell immunophenotype, including positivity for CD56, granzyme, perforin and TIA-1. All 53 NKTCLs expressed EBER, consistent with EBV infection, with a subset in each group also expressing EBV LMP1. In contrast, greater than 40% of aggressive cases expressed CXCL13 compared to 0% of indolent cases (p=0.005). Aggressive cases were more commonly BCL2 positive (67% versus 31%, p = 0.048). A subset of aggressive cases had Ki67 >50% (6/39 versus 0/14 indolent cases) but there were also aggressive cases with Ki67 <10%. A multiple correspondence analysis using 14 clinical and 18 IHC markers was performed on 33 patients with complete data available. Variables contributing to categorization of aggressive versus indolent ENKTL included palate perforation, peripheral blood lymphocyte count < 0.8 K/uL, B symptoms, anemia, cachexia and macroscopic necrosis. Median survival was markedly better for patients with indolent disease compared to those with aggressive disease (median not reached vs. 2 years, p<0.05). Twelve of (92.9%) thirteen treated patients in the indolent group achieved a complete response compared to only 8 (40%) of 22 treated for aggressive disease (p=0.04). In fact, 9 patients with aggressive disease died before receiving treatment compared to 0 with indolent disease (23.0% vs. 0%; p=0.04). Three of the deaths in patients with indolent disease were due to toxicity from chemotherapy (infection, pancytopenia). Conclusion Approximately one-quarter of patients with extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma, nasal type, in our cohort have a unique variant associated with the absence of aggressive clinical features. These patients have a more indolent clinical course, better outcome with treatment, have less frequent expression of BCL2, and lack CXCL13 expression. Patients with the indolent variant may benefit from less aggressive therapeutic approaches to minimize unnecessary treatment-associated toxicity. Efforts to define genetic and transcriptional characteristics of these cases are underway. Table Disclosures Weinstock: Celgene: Research Funding.

Vigor testings for evaluating the physiological quality of chia seeds

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a plant native to central and western Mexico and northern Guatemala belonging to the Lamiaceae family, well known for its seeds containing antioxidants, dietary fibers, and ?-linolenic acid, which helps to prevent different diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, cancer and Alzheimer. In Brazil, there is not much information about the crop, mainly about the physiological quality of its seeds. Therefore, the objective was to establish vigor testing methods to evaluate the physiological quality of chia seeds. Five seed lots were used, in which germination tests, seedling emergence, emergence velocity index and variations in the electrical conductivity test were carried out. The volume of distilled water was 25 and 50 mL, the number of seeds was 50 and 100, the temperature was 20, 25 and 30 °C, the soaking period was 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 18 and 24 hours and variations in there was accelerated aging test by the traditional method and saturated NaCl solution, being periods of aging as 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours and temperatures of 38, 41 and 44 °C. It is concluded that both the electrical conductivity test and the accelerated aging test are efficient in evaluating the physiological quality of chia seeds. The electrical conductivity test must be performed with 100 seeds in 50 mL of distilled water, for four hours soaking at 25 or 30 °C; and the accelerated aging test should be performed at 44 °C for 24 hours by the traditional method or 41 °C for 24 hours using saturated NaCl solution.