Central Gabon Research Articles

Unveiling spatial variations of high forest live biomass carbon stocks of Gabon using advanced remote sensing techniques

Gabon is one of 11 high-forest, low-deforestation (HFLD) countries in the world. It has the highest proportion of preserved forests in the Congo Basin and is the first country to create large forest carbon offset credits in the market. However, about 60% of forests in Gabon is allocated to logging concessions, causing concerns for forest degradation and the sustainability of carbon credits. Here, we use a combination of air- and space-borne remote sensing data and the-state-of-the-art gradient boosted regression trees to estimate forest structure and aboveground biomass carbon density (ACD) of trees at 100 m resolution for the year circa 2020. Mapping spatial variations of ACD across floristically diverse landscapes, we estimate average density and total living carbon storage of trees at the national and sub-national levels. The estimated ACD of trees in forestlands within the country was 142.12 ± 7.3 Mg C ha−1 with the highest values found in central Gabon (150.08 ± 5.8 Mg C ha−1) and on highlands (161.18 ± 6.7 Mg C ha−1). On average, in every region, ACD of forests found within logging concessions (149.89 ± 6.1 Mg C ha−1) was higher than unmanaged forests of unprotected areas (122.81 ± 4.4 Mg C ha−1), indicating the combined effects of logging in carbon-rich forests and increased productivity due to management. The country’s total estimated biomass carbon for trees (above and belowground) stored within the forests was 4.14 ± 0.3 Pg C with 68% found within logging concessions and 14% within protected areas. The map provides high precision and comprehensive assessment of carbon stocks of trees in Gabon’s forests, significantly improving the country’s prospects to implement climate mitigation policies and to participate in carbon markets.

Assessing the Incidence of Snakebites in Rural Gabon-A Community-Based, Cross-Sectional Pilot Survey.

Snakebite envenoming (SBE) is a neglected tropical disease (NTD). Community-based studies from sub-Saharan Africa are urgently required as data on the incidence are scarce. This study aimed to determine the lifetime prevalence of snakebites in rural Gabon by preparing the conduct of a larger regional survey. A cross-sectional community-based epidemiological survey in Sindara, Ngounie province, was conducted. Households were interviewed about the history of snakebites of household members to calculate lifetime prevalence. In addition, the average annual incidence rate per 100,000 over the last 5 years was calculated. A total of 771 inhabitants were enrolled, of which 5 (0.65%; 95% confidence interval (95% CI: 0.2-1.5%)) were victims of snakebites. Over the past 5 years, annual incidence was 77 bites per 100,000 (95% CI: 0-620). This study provides a first rough estimate of the incidence of SBE from rural central Gabon, demonstrating the importance of this NTD. Key Contribution: The estimated annual incidence of snakebites found was 77 per 100,000. Snakebites occurred mainly during agricultural activities.

An Effective Method for InSAR Mapping of Tropical Forest Degradation in Hilly Areas

Current satellite remote sensing methods struggle to detect and map forest degradation, which is a critical issue as it is likely a major and growing source of carbon emissions and biodiveristy loss. TanDEM-X InSAR phase height (hϕ) is a promising variable for measuring forest disturbances, as it is closely related to the mean canopy height, and thus should decrease if canopy trees are removed. However, previous research has focused on relatively flat terrains, despite the fact that much of the world’s remaining tropical forests are found in hilly areas, and this inevitably introduces artifacts in sideways imaging systems. In this paper, we find a relationship between hϕ and aboveground biomass change in four selectively logged plots in a hilly region of central Gabon. We show that minimising multilooking prior to the calculation of hϕ strengthens this relationship, and that degradation estimates across steep slopes in the surrounding region are improved by selecting data from the most appropriate pass directions on a pixel-by-pixel basis. This shows that TanDEM-X InSAR can measure the magnitude of degradation, and that topographic effects can be mitigated if data from multiple SAR viewing geometries are available.

The genus Stilbocoris in the Malagasy area (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Rhyparochromidae).

The species of Stilbocoris Bergroth, 1893 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Rhyparochromidae: Rhyparochrominae: Drymini) occurring in Madagascar and surrounding islands are reviewed. Four described and two undescribed species (S. scudderi sp. nov. and S. slateri sp. nov.) are recognized, the latter two apparently being endemic to Madagascar. The following new country records are provided: S. distinctus Scudder, 1962: Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Cameroon and Madagascar; S. galla Linnavuori, 1978: Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar; S. triangularis Linnavuori, 1978: Senegal, Tanzania and Madagascar. A key for the species occurring in the Malagasy area is presented.

Testing the waters: Syndemic gastrointestinal distress in Lambaréné, Gabon, 1926–1932

This paper argues that a cluster of pathogens, hazardous labor conditions, and environmental constraints rendered chronic gastrointestinal distress fatal for African laborers living near Lambaréné, Gabon during the 1920s. Application of syndemic theory and epidemiological methods on patient records at Hospital Schweitzer, the central hospital of the region, explain how a seemingly simple diagnosis of chronic gastrointestinal distress belied a complex web of worsening biological and social outcomes for laborers in the tropical forests of central Gabon. An analysis of the syndemic suffering of GI patients reveals how the dysentery pathogen became tied to the peaks and valleys of the colonial economy, and in particular, the colonial extraction of tropical hardwoods. These processes culminated in the summer of 1929 when the highest number of timber exports coincided with the deadliest months of dysentery outbreak for the patient population at Hospital Schweitzer. This case study proposes syndemics as an effective theoretical framework to research historical precedents of the entanglement of people, pathogens, and illness.

HSV-2 Infection as a Potential Cofactor for HIV Disease Progression and Selection of Drug Resistance Mutations in Adults under WHO-Recommended First-Line Antiretroviral Therapy: A Multicentric, Cross-Sectional Study in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, and Gabon.

Although herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2) infection is a known cofactor for HIV transmission in Central Africa, its role in HIV disease progression is unclear. The aim of this study was to examine the potential link between HSV-2 infection and HIV disease progression, in addition to identifying the presence of genes conferring HIV antiretroviral resistance mutations. This was a cross-sectional study involving 302 HIV-infected adults in Central Africa with virological failure (viral load >1000 copies/mL) on first-line antiretroviral therapy from four different countries. The seroprevalence of HSV-2 was 32% (96/302). Amongst the HIV-infected individuals who were HSV-2 seropositive, the mean HIV viral load and CD4 count were 4.82 ± 0.83 log copies/mL and 243 ± 144 cells/microliter, respectively. Among the HIV-infected individuals who were HSV-2-seronegative, the mean HIV viral load and CD4 count were 3.48 ± 0.44 log copies/mL and 646 ± 212 cells/microliter, respectively (p < 0.001). There was a statistically significant relationship (p < 0.001) between HSV-2 seropositivity and the presence of resistance mutations to antiretrovirals (ARV), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI), and nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) with odds ratios of 9.7, 10, and 11.9, respectively. There was no link between HSV-2 serostatus and protease inhibitor (PI) resistance mutations. There was a substantial accumulation of resistance mutations in HSV-2-seropositive compared to -seronegative patients. These findings support the link between HIV disease progression and HSV-2 infection. An association was observed between the presence of NNRTI and NRTI resistance mutations and HSV-2 seropositivity.

DOES THE PROCYCLICALITY OF CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS AFFECT FINANCIAL STABILITY IN CEMAC?

The objective of this article is to analyze the effects of procyclical variations of the capital requirements for risk coverage on financial stability in the CEMAC[1]. In order to achieve this objective, we have specified and estimated a panel VAR model using the structural factorization method on quarterly Central Bank data over the period 2006-2017. Firstly, the results show that procyclical capital adjustments in the CEMAC region lead to short-term financial instability through the contraction of credit to the private sector. Secondly, despite the low level of financial development, the effects maintained by the adjustment of monetary policy instruments in the short term remain significant on price stability. Finally, in the long term, the procyclicality of regulatory capital makes it possible to revive economic activity and guarantee financial stability. These results lead us to recommend the adoption of a more discretionary monetary policy so as to make more procyclical the capital requirement.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; [1] Economic Community of Central African States comprising Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.

Pangolins and bats living together in underground burrows in Lopé National Park, Gabon.

NATCHA Abstract: In light of recent publications (e g Lam et al , 2020;Shang et al , 2020) that indicate a link between pangolin and bat coronaviruses related to SARS‐CoV‐2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2), we believe that recent observations of pangolins and bats sharing burrows in Lope, Central Gabon, is of general interest Our observations were made during an ecological and spatial movement study of the giant pangolin, Smutsia gigantea

Estimation of Aboveground Oil Palm Biomass in a Mature Plantation in the Congo Basin

Agro-industrial oil palm plantations are becoming increasingly established in the Congo Basin (West Equatorial Africa) for mainly economic reasons. Knowledge of oil palm capacity to sequester carbon requires biomass estimates. This study implemented local and regional methods for estimating palm biomass in a mature plantation, using destructive sampling. Eighteen 35-year-old oil palms with breast height diameters (DBH) between 48 and 58 cm were felled and sectioned in a plantation located in Makouké, central Gabon. Field and laboratory measurements determined the biomasses of different tree compartments (fruits, leaflets, petioles, rachises, stems). Fruits and leaflets contributed an average of 6% to total aboveground palm biomass, which petioles accounted for 8%, rachises for 13% and the stem, 73%. The best allometric equation for estimating stem biomass was obtained with a composite variable, formulated as DBH2 × stem height, weighted by tissue infra-density. For leaf biomass (fruits + leaflets + petioles + rachises), the equation was of a similar form, but included the leaf number instead of infra-density. The allometric model combining the stem and leaf biomass yielded the best estimates of the total aboveground oil palm biomass (coefficient of determination (r2) = 0.972, p &lt; 0.0001, relative root mean square error (RMSE) = 5%). Yet, the model was difficult to implement in practice, given the limited availability of variables such as the leaf number. The total aboveground biomass could be estimated with comparable results using DBH2 × stem height, weighted by the infra-density (r2 = 0.961, p &lt; 0.0001, relative RMSE (%RMSE) = 5.7%). A simpler model excluding infra-density did not severely compromise results (R2 = 0.939, p &lt; 0.0003, %RMSE = 8.2%). We also examined existing allometric models, established elsewhere in the world, for estimating aboveground oil palm biomass in our study area. These models exhibited performances inferior to the best local allometric equations that were developed.

First record of the genus Setelacher Bouček (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae: Eulophinae) from the Afrotropical region, with description of a new species

ABSTRACT A new species of the genus Setelacher Bouček, S. lasallei sp. nov. Gumovsky and van Noort, is described from the Afrotropical region (Central African Republic, Gabon and Uganda). It confirms the presence of the genus in the region. The only described species of the genus, S. fasciatus Bouček, is of Australasian and Indo-Malayan distribution, and one undescribed species was previously recorded from South Africa. All images presented here are available on www.waspweb.org http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:D6AA0B15-6EA7-4C93-827C-1807E69BD6D2

Modern pollen–vegetation relationships within tropical marshes of Lopé National Park (Central Gabon)

In the Congo Basin, paleoenvironmental data are scarce, due to the lack of natural lakes. Using marshes sedimentary deposits as alternative archives requires the calibration of modern pollen assemblages, which are totally absent for these type of deposits. The aim of this study is to understand and qualify how well surface marsh sediment pollen assemblages reflect the contemporary vegetation. We compare pollen assemblages at the surface of 23 sedge marshes disseminated in an enclave of savanna in the Gabonese forest and vegetation surveys along transects from sampling areas. Very high diversity of forest pollen taxa is recorded, with a gradient of diversity from most open environments to those where the forest is closer, however savanna taxa remains low. The surface samples surprisingly reveal general weak percentages of Poaceae pollen grains that never exceed 25%. The low proportion of Poaceae is consistent with the deposition mode of pollen in these specific sites but challenges the common interpretation of a straightforward relationship between this percentage and savanna/forest balance.

Description of Plasmodium falciparum infections in central Gabon demonstrating high parasite densities among symptomatic adolescents and adults

BackgroundMalaria remains a public health issue, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa with special features of seriousness in young children and pregnant women. Adolescents and adults are reported to have acquired a semi-immune status and, therefore, present with low parasitaemia. Children are understood to present with a much higher parasitaemia and severe malaria. It is a concern that effective malaria control programmes targeting young children may lead to a delay in the acquisition of acquired immunity and, therefore, causing a shift in the epidemiology of malaria. Prevalence and parasitaemia were explored in adolescents and adults with Plasmodium falciparum infections compared to young children in the area of Lambaréné, Gabon as an indicator for semi-immunity.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted at the Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL) during a 6-month period in 2018. Symptomatic patients, of all ages were screened for malaria at health facilities in Lambaréné and Fougamou and their respective surrounding villages in the central region of Gabon. Plasmodium falciparum infections were determined either by rapid diagnostic test (RDT) or by microscopy. Descriptive analysis of data on parasite densities, anaemia, and fever are presented.Results1589 individuals screened were included in this analysis, including 731 (46%) adolescents and adults. Out of 1377 assessed, the proportion of P. falciparum positive RDTs was high among adolescents (68%) and adults (44%), compared to young children (55%) and school children (72%). Out of 274 participants assessed for malaria by microscopy, 45 (16%) had a parasite count above 10,000/µl of which 9 (20%) were adults.ConclusionThis study shows a high rate of P. falciparum infections in adolescents and adults associated with high-level parasitaemia similar to that of young children. Adolescents and adults seem to be an at-risk population, suggesting that malaria programmes should consider adolescents and adults during the implementation of malaria prevention and case management programmes with continuous care, since they also act as reservoirs for P. falciparum.

DNA recovery from archived RDTs for genetic characterization of Plasmodium falciparum in a routine setting in Lambar\xe9n\xe9, Gabon

BackgroundRapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) have been described as a source of genetic material to analyse malaria parasites in proof-of-concept studies. The increasing use of RDTs (e.g., in focal or mass screening and treatment campaigns) makes this approach particularly attractive for large-scale investigations of parasite populations. In this study, the complexity of Plasmodium falciparum infections, parasite load and chloroquine resistance transporter gene mutations were investigated in DNA samples extracted from positive RDTs, obtained in a routine setting and archived at ambient temperature.MethodsA total of 669 archived RDTs collected from malaria cases in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of central Gabon were used for P. falciparum DNA extraction. Performance of RDTs as a source of DNA for PCR was determined using: (i) amplification of a single copy merozoite surface protein 1 (msp1) gene followed by highly sensitive and automated capillary electrophoresis; (ii) genotyping of the pfcrt gene locus 72–76 using haplotype-specific-probe-based real-time PCR to characterize chloroquine resistance; and, (iii) real-time PCR targeting 18S genes to detect and quantify Plasmodium parasites.ResultsOut of the 669 archived RDTs, amplification of P. falciparum nucleic materials had a success rate of 97% for 18S real-time PCR, and 88% for the msp1 gene. The multiplicity of infections (MOI) of the whole population was 2.6 (95% CI 2.5–2.8). The highest number of alleles detected in one infection was 11. The MOI decreased with increasing age (β = − 0.0046, p = 0.02) and residence in Lambaréné was associated with smaller MOIs (p < 0.001). The overall prevalence of mutations associated with chloroquine resistance was 78.5% and was not associated with age. In Lambaréné, prevalence of chloroquine resistance was lower compared to rural Moyen-Ogooué (β = − 0.809, p-value = 0.011).ConclusionRDT is a reliable source of DNA for P. falciparum detection and genotyping assays. Furthermore, the increasing use of RDTs allows them to be an alternative source of DNA for large-scale genetic epidemiological studies. Parasite populations in the study area are highly diverse and prevalence of chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum remains high, especially in rural areas.

Two new species of Raphia (Palmae/Arecaceae) from Cameroon and Gabon.

Raphia (Arecaceae, Calamoideae) is the most diverse genus of African palms with around 20 species. Two new species from Cameroon and Gabon, Raphiagabonica Mogue, Sonké & Couvreur, sp. nov. and Raphiazamiana Mogue, Sonké & Couvreur, sp. nov. are described and illustrated. Their affinities are discussed and the conservation status of each species is assessed. For both species, distribution maps are provided. Raphiagabonica is restricted to two small populations from central Gabon, where it occurs on hillsides on tierra firme soil, and close to small streams. Its preliminary IUCN status is Endangered, being amongst the five most threatened palm species in Africa. Raphiagabonica potentially belongs to the moniliform section. Raphiazamiana is largely distributed from south Cameroon to south Gabon and is very common. It is also a multi-used palm, from which wine, grubs and construction material are extracted and sold. It generally occurs in large stands in a wide range of ecosystems such as swamps, coastal forests on partially inundated sandy soils and inundated savannahs. Its large stature, hard to access habitat (swamps) and abundant presence might have discouraged botanists to collect it until now. Raphiazamiana belongs to the taxonomically complex raphiate section.

Comparison of Small- and Large-Footprint Lidar Characterization of Tropical Forest Aboveground Structure and Biomass: A Case Study From Central Gabon

NASA's Global Ecosystem Dynamic Investigation (GEDI) mission has been designed to measure forest structure using lidar waveforms to sample the earth's vegetation while in orbit aboard the International Space Station. In this paper, we used airborne large-footprint (LF) lidar measurements to simulate GEDI observations from which we retrieved ground elevation, vegetation height, and aboveground biomass (AGB). GEDI-like product accuracy was then assessed by comparing them to similar products derived from airborne small-footprint (SF) lidar measurements. The study focused on tropical forests and used data collected during the NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) AfriSAR ground and airborne campaigns in the Lope National Park in Central Gabon. The measurements covered a gradient of successional stages of forest development with different height, canopy density, and topography. The comparison of the two sensors shows that LF lidar waveforms and simulated waveforms from SF lidar are equivalent in their ability to estimate ground elevation (RMSE = 0.5 m, bias = 0.29 m) and maximum forest height (RMSE = 2.99 m, bias = 0.24 m) over the study area. The difference in the AGB estimated from both lidar instruments at the 1-ha spatial scale is small over the entire study area (RMSE = 6.34 Mg·ha −1, bias = 11.27 Mg·ha−1) and the bias is attributed to the impact of ground slopes greater than 10–20° on the LF lidar measurements of forest height. Our results support the ability of GEDILF lidar to measure the complex structure of humid tropical forests and provide AGB estimates comparable to SF-derived ones.

The AfriSAR Campaign: Tomographic Analysis With Phase-Screen Correction for P-Band Acquisitions

ESA's earth explorer BIOMASS mission is a P -band (432–438 MHz) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) using a combination of polarimetry and interferometric observations to quantify the vertical structure and biomass of global forests, with the primary focus on tropical forests. The methodology to map the vertical structure of the forest is based on multibaseline tomographic measurements from space. In this paper, we use data acquired by airborne sensors during the AfriSAR campaign in humid tropical forests of Africa to examine the potential of P -band tomographic SAR measurements in estimating forest parameters. We use data acquired by ONERA's P -band SAR system over the Lope National Park in central Gabon during July 2015 to estimate vertical profiles. In processing the multibaseline data, we develop and implement a phase-screen correction methodology based on recent works by Tebaldini et al. to improve the quality of measurements by removing phase perturbations associated with platform motions and uncertainties in flight trajectories. The vertical structure estimated from the corrected tomographic measurements are then compared with small and large footprint light detection and ranging (Lidar) observations collected as part of the AfriSAR campaign. The results suggest that phase-screen correction can significantly improve the vertical profile of radar backscattered power to match the Lidar observations in detecting ground, vertical vegetation density, and total height of the forests across a variety of forest types and terrain complexity.

Optimal Cropping Sequence in Pluriactive Non-specialised Vegetable Farms in the Northwest Region of Cameroon

Cameroon champions the vegetable subsector in the Central African sub region both in output levels, export quantities and foreign exchange earnings. The country exports, formally and informally, fresh vegetables to neighboring countries like Nigeria, Central African Republic, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Besides ensuring food self-sufficiency, the primary intention of these pluriactive non-specialized vegetable farmers who also cultivate staple energy food crops as complementary and supplementary enterprises is to maximize farm profits subject to the numerous constraints. These constraints are further compounded by an acute incidence of climate variability, seasonal price fluctuations and poor farm planning. This study sought to find out an annual cropping pattern or sequence that maximizes annual returns and enhances the optimal allocation and utilization of farm resources. The study adopted the stratified random sampling technique to interview 120 vegetable farmers in the Northwest Region of Cameroon, from which pluriactive non-specialized were identified. This data was subjected to inferential statistical and dynamic programming analytical techniques. Theresults identified sixteen species of vegetable crops cultivated alongside energy food crops in the study area. The study further identified three cropping seasons in a year (March-June, July-October, and November-February) and suggested the prioritization of the tuber vegetable during the first cropping season, the leafy vegetables during the second cropping season and the fruit vegetables during the third cropping season. This optimal cropping pastern is highly responsive to climate weather risks and market shocks thus presenting potentials of yielding higher profits of up to 5 256 614.8 FCFA ((US$ 8761.0) per annum from pluriactive vegetable farming.

Geographic Distribution of the African Weaver Ant,Oecophylla longinoda

Abstract African weaver ants, Oecophylla longinoda (Latreille, 1802), are conspicuous arboreal ants, well known in the humid tropics of Africa. Weaver ants build large distinctive nest structures in trees by binding together clusters of leaves using a silk-like substance. Although many regard weaver ants as pests due to their bite, local people also use weaver ants for food, medicine, and as biological control agents. Here, I mapped the geographic distribution of O. longinoda based on >500 site records from 34 countries: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, Congo-Kinshasa, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The documented range of O. longinoda is confined almost entirely within areas with Tropical (Group A) climates a...

Performance of non-parametric algorithms for spatial mapping of tropical forest structure.

BackgroundMapping tropical forest structure is a critical requirement for accurate estimation of emissions and removals from land use activities. With the availability of a wide range of remote sensing imagery of vegetation characteristics from space, development of finer resolution and more accurate maps has advanced in recent years. However, the mapping accuracy relies heavily on the quality of input layers, the algorithm chosen, and the size and quality of inventory samples for calibration and validation.ResultsBy using airborne lidar data as the “truth” and focusing on the mean canopy height (MCH) as a key structural parameter, we test two commonly-used non-parametric techniques of maximum entropy (ME) and random forest (RF) for developing maps over a study site in Central Gabon. Results of mapping show that both approaches have improved accuracy with more input layers in mapping canopy height at 100 m (1-ha) pixels. The bias-corrected spatial models further improve estimates for small and large trees across the tails of height distributions with a trade-off in increasing overall mean squared error that can be readily compensated by increasing the sample size.ConclusionsA significant improvement in tropical forest mapping can be achieved by weighting the number of inventory samples against the choice of image layers and the non-parametric algorithms. Without future satellite observations with better sensitivity to forest biomass, the maps based on existing data will remain slightly biased towards the mean of the distribution and under and over estimating the upper and lower tails of the distribution.

African Savanna-Forest Boundary Dynamics: A 20-Year Study.

Recent studies show widespread encroachment of forest into savannas with important consequences for the global carbon cycle and land-atmosphere interactions. However, little research has focused on in situ measurements of the successional sequence of savanna to forest in Africa. Using long-term inventory plots we quantify changes in vegetation structure, above-ground biomass (AGB) and biodiversity of trees ≥10 cm diameter over 20 years for five vegetation types: savanna; colonising forest (F1), monodominant Okoume forest (F2); young Marantaceae forest (F3); and mixed Marantaceae forest (F4) in Lopé National Park, central Gabon, plus novel 3D terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) measurements to assess forest structure differences. Over 20 years no plot changed to a new stage in the putative succession, but F1 forests strongly moved towards the structure, AGB and diversity of F2 forests. Overall, savanna plots showed no detectable change in structure, AGB or diversity using this method, with zero trees ≥10 cm diameter in 1993 and 2013. F1 and F2 forests increased in AGB, mainly as a result of adding recruited stems (F1) and increased Basal Area (F2), whereas F3 and F4 forests did not change substantially in structure, AGB or diversity. Critically, the stability of the F3 stage implies that this stage may be maintained for long periods. Soil carbon was low, and did not show a successional gradient as for AGB and diversity. TLS vertical plant profiles showed distinctive differences amongst the vegetation types, indicating that this technique can improve ecological understanding. We highlight two points: (i) as forest colonises, changes in biodiversity are much slower than changes in forest structure or AGB; and (ii) all forest types store substantial quantities of carbon. Multi-decadal monitoring is likely to be required to assess the speed of transition between vegetation types.