Central European Mountain Research Articles

Ambient ozone in forests of the Central and Eastern European mountains

Ambient ozone (O 3) concentrations in the forested areas of the Central and Eastern European (CEE) mountains measured on passive sampler networks and in several locations equipped with active monitors are reviewed. Some areas of the Carpathian Mountains, especially in Romania and parts of Poland, as well as the Sumava and Brdy Mountains in the Czech Republic are characterized by low European background concentrations of the pollutant (summer season means ∼30 ppb). Other parts of the Carpathians, especially the western part of the range (Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Poland), some of the Eastern (Ukraine) and Southern (Romania) Carpathians and the Jizerske Mountains have high O 3 levels with peak values >100 ppb and seasonal means ∼50 ppb. Large portions of the CEE mountain forests experience O 3 exposures that are above levels recommended for protection of forest and natural vegetation. Continuation of monitoring efforts with a combination of active monitors and passive samplers is needed for developing risk assessment scenarios for forests and other natural areas of the CEE Region.

Potential impacts of climate change on groundwater recharge and streamflow in a central European low mountain range

General Circulation Models simulate significant changes of temperature and precipitation over Europe as part of the anthropogenic climate change. In this study, the impacts of climate change on groundwater recharge and streamflow in a central European low mountain range catchment are investigated using a conceptual eco-hydrologic model, a revised version of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). To improve the reliability of our simulations, we compile plant physiological studies concerning the influence of elevated ambient CO 2 concentrations on stomatal conductance and leaf area. Using this information to parameterise the model, we evaluate the impacts of two climate change scenarios, which represent a wide range of assumptions concerning future greenhouse gas emissions and climate sensitivity. The resulting effects on mean annual groundwater recharge and streamflow are small, as increased atmospheric CO 2 levels reduce stomatal conductance thus counteracting increasing potential evapotranspiration induced by the temperature rise and decreasing precipitation. There are, however, more pronounced changes associated with the mean annual cycle of groundwater recharge and streamflow. Our results imply that due to the warming a smaller proportion of the winter precipitation will fall as snow. The spring snowmelt peak therefore is reduced while the flood risk in winter will probably increase. In summer, mean monthly groundwater recharge and streamflow are reduced by up to 50% potentially leading to problems concerning water quality, groundwater withdrawals and hydropower generation.

Secondary production of invertebrates in a Central European mountain stream (Steina, Black Forest, Germany)

We estimated macroinvertebrate production in the Central European mountain stream Steina over 3 years from November 1985 to October 1988 applying the increment-summation method and additional P/B ratios from literature. Total production differed little between the three study years, amounting to 19.0 (1986), 19.7 (1987) and 20.8 g m -2 y -1 (1988). Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Diptera contributed most to total invertebrate production. Whereas the production of Tricladida, Oligochaeta, Acari, Crustacea, and Coleoptera remained more or less stable over the three study years, it showed in part distinct trends or between-year variation in the three most dominant orders. Mayfly production increased from 4.7 to 7.2 g m -2 y -1 and stonefly production from 1.8 to 2.3 g m -2 y -1 . Caddisfly production showed a decreasing tendency from 1986 (6.8 gm -2 y -1 ) to 1988 (4.0 g m -2 y -1 ). Marked differences, increasing or decreasing values, occurred at some species level. Secondary production of all primary consumers in the Steina was 16.7 (1986, 1987) and 17.9 (1988) g m -2 y -1 over the three-year time span. Production of secondary consumers (predators) amounted to 2.3-3.0 g m -2 y -1 of total production, and was 2.7 g m -2 y -1 on average. Analysis of the portions of functional groups revealed that suspension feeders and predators accounted for only 12.8-17.8 % of total production, whereas the relative contribution of scrapers was about 24 % in 1986 and 1987, and even reached 38 % in 1988. Production of shredders and deposit feeders reached the same order of magnitude as scrapers, particularly in 1986. However, there was a decreasing tendency in production of shredders and deposit feeders and an increasing tendency in production of scrapers and suspension feeders towards the 3rd year.

Modelling reversibility of Central European mountain lakes from acidification: Part I - the Bohemian forest

Abstract. A dynamic, process-based acidification model, MAGIC7, has been applied to three small, strongly acidified lakes in the Bohemian Forest, the Czech Republic. The model was calibrated for a set of experimental records on lake water composition over the 1984–2000 period, and produced hindcast concentrations that compared well, even with older (40-year) irregular determinations of nitrate, chloride and pH. Water and soil chemistry forecasts up to 2050 were based on reductions in S and N emissions presupposed by the Gothenburg Protocol. Modelled sulphate and chloride concentrations were predicted to decrease to the levels at the beginning of the 20th century by 2050. The lake water carbonate buffering system is predicted to be re-established in only two lakes (Cerné and Plešné), with current soil base saturations of 12-15%. Concentrations of ionic aluminium species decreased sharply, from 110 μeq l-1 in the mid-1980s to the current ~40 μeq l-1, and were predicted to decrease below 10 μeq l-1 in the 2020s. Diatom-inferred pH in pre-industrial times was substantially lower than modelled pH. It is suggested that the diatom pH, based almost entirely on non-planktonic species, is biased by inwash of diatoms from more acidic tributaries into the sediment of these small lakes. Generally significant results can be summarised as follows: (1) Simulated sulphate levels agree well with observations during acidification progress and retreat only for values of soil SO42- adsorption capacity three to six times (20 to 40 μeq kg-1) higher than those found experimentally. This implies a further mechanism of S retention and release in addition to physical sulphate adsorption to Fe and Al oxides of soils. (2) The catchments’ ability to retain deposited N appeared to decline after ~1950 but this was not connected with a sufficient change in the C:N ratio of the soils. Agreement between modelled and observed concentrations of nitrate was therefore achieved by empirical restriction of N retention in the soils. Based on their current ability to retain N, the catchments will remain N-saturated and could, temporarily, produce more inorganic N than they receive due to additional nitrate production from soil N-organic pools. This situation has occurred already in the Cerné Lake catchment. (3) Differences in responses of individual lakes can be attributed to different land usages over the past several centuries as well as to differences in geology and primary production. Keywords: MAGIC, atmospheric deposition, N retention, diatom-inferred pH, sulphate, nitrate, base cations, aluminium, Czech Republic

Modelling reversibility of central European mountain lakes from acidification: Part II – the Tatra Mountains

Abstract. A dynamic, process-based model of surface water acidification, MAGIC7, has been applied to four representative alpine lakes in the Tatra Mountains (Slovakia and Poland). The model was calibrated for a set of 12 to 22-year experimental records of lake water composition. Surface water and soil chemistry were reconstructed from 1860 to 2002 and forecast to 2050 based on the reduction in sulphur and nitrogen emissions presupposed by the Gothenburg Protocol. Relatively small changes in the soil C:N ratios were not sufficient to simulate observed changes in NO3‾ concentrations, so an alternative empirical approach of changes in terrestrial N uptake was applied. Measured sulphate sorption isotherms did not allow calibration of the pattern of sulphate response in the lakes, indicating that other mechanisms of S release were also important. The lake water chemistry exhibited significant changes during both the acidification advance (1860 to 1980s) and retreat (1980s to 2010). An increase in lake water concentrations of strong acid anions (SAA; 104–149 μeq l–1) was balanced by a decline in HCO3‾ (13–62 μeq l–1) and an increase in base cations (BC; 42–72 μeq l–1), H+ (0-18 μeq l–1), and Alin+ (0–26 μeq l–1). The carbonate buffering system was depleted in three lakes. In contrast, lake water concentrations of SAA, BC, H+, and Alin+ decreased by 57–82, 28–42, 0–11, and 0–22 μeq l–1, respectively, the carbonate buffering system was re-established, and HCO3‾ increased by 1–21 μeq l–1 during the chemical reversal from atmospheric acidification (by 2000). The MAGIC7 model forecasts a slight continuation in this reversal for the next decade and new steady-state conditions thereafter. Gran alkalinity should come back to 1950s levels (0–71 μeq l–1) in all lakes after 2010. Partial recovery of the soil pool of exchangeable base cations can be expected in one catchment, while only conservation of the current conditions is predicted for three lakes. Even though the pre-industrial alkalinity values of 16–80 μeq l–1 will not be reached due to the insufficient recovery of soil quality, the ongoing chemical improvement of water should be sufficient for biological recovery of most alpine lakes in the Tatra Mountains. Keywords: MAGIC, atmospheric deposition, sulphate, nitrate, base cations, aluminium, alkalinity, pH

An attempt to restore a central European species-rich mountain grassland through grazing

Abstract This paper describes the effects of re-establishing seasonal cattle grazing by 0.7 animal.ha−1 on vegetation in a long-term abandoned, and partly degraded, semi-natural mountain pasture in the Sumava National Park, Czech Republic. There was very uneven grazing intensity inside the locality, and grazing preference changed during the season: cattle grazed most of the time in productive but species-poor Deschampsia cespitosa swards, but changed to a species-rich Violion caninae stand in the middle of the summer. A species-rich Carex rostrata community was only grazed at the end of the season. Species-poor swards dominated by Nardus stricta and Carex brizoides were mainly used as resting areas. Both grazing and excluding from grazing had a negative effect on species diversity of the Deschampsia cespitosa swards. The soil seed bank contained only few species that are characteristic of mountain grassland communities, and seed dispersal of the target species by cattle dung was also found to be very limi...

Health Effects of High Radon Environments in Central Europe: Another Test for the LNT Hypothesis?

Among the various "natural laboratories" of high natural or technical enhanced natural radiation environments in the world such as Kerala (India), Brazil, Ramsar (Iran), etc., the areas in and around the Central European Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge) in the southern parts of former East Germany, but also including parts of Thuringia, northern Bohemia (now Czech Republic), and northeastern Bavaria, are still relatively little known internationally.Although this area played a central role in the history of radioactivity and radiation effects on humans over centuries, most of the valuable earlier results have not been published in English or quotable according to the current rules in the scientific literature and therefore are not generally known internationally. During the years 1945 to 1989, this area was one of the world's most important uranium mining areas, providing the former Soviet Union with 300,000 tons of uranium for its military programs. Most data related to health effects of radon and other carcinogenic agents on miners and residents became available only during the years after German reunification. Many of the studies are still unpublished, or more or less internal reports.By now, substantial studies have been performed on the previously unavailable data about the miners and the population, providing valuable insights that are, to a large degree, in disagreement with the opinion of various international bodies assuming an increase of lung cancer risk in the order of 10% for each 100 Bq/m(3) (or doubling for 1000 Bq/m(3)), even for small residential radon concentrations. At the same time, other studies focusing on never-smokers show little or no effects of residential radon exposures. Experiments in medical clinics using radon on a large scale as a therapeutic against various rheumatic and arthritic disease demonstrated in randomized double-blind studies the effectiveness of such treatments.The main purpose of this review is to critically examine, including some historical references, recent results primarily in three areas, namely the possible effects of the inhalation of very high radon concentrations on miners; the effect of increased residential radon concentrations on the population; and the therapeutic use of radon. With many of the results still evolving and/or under intense discussion among the experts, more evidence is emerging that radon, which has been inhaled at extremely high concentrations in the multimillion Bq/m(3) range by many of older miners (however, with substantial confounders, and large uncertainties in retrospective dosimetry), was perhaps an important but not the dominating factor for an increase in lung cancer rates. Other factors such as smoking, inhalation of quartz and mineral dust, arsenic, nitrous gases, etc. are likely to be more serious contributors to increased miner lung cancer rates. An extrapolation of miner data to indoor radon situations is not feasible.Concerning indoor radon studies, the by far dominating effect of smoking on the lung cancer incidence makes the results of some studies, apparently showing a positive dose-response relationship, questionable. According to recent studies in several countries, there are no, or beneficial, residential radon effects below about 600 to 1000 Bq/m(3) (the extensive studies in the U.S., in particular by B. Cohen, and the discussions about these data, will not be part of this review, because they have already been discussed in detail in the U.S. literature). As a cause of lung cancer, radon seems to rank - behind active and passive smoking, and probably also air pollution in densely populated and/or industrial areas (diesel exhaust soot, etc.) - as a minor contributor in cases of extremely high residential radon levels, combined with heavy smoking of the residents.As demonstrated in an increasing number of randomized double-blind clinical studies for various painful inflammatory joint diseases such as rheumatism, arthritic problems, and Morbus Bechterew, radon treatments are beneficial, with the positive effect lasting until at least 6 months after the normally 3-week treatment by inhalation or bathes. Studies on the mechanism of these effects are progressing. In other cases of extensive use of radon treatment for a wide spectrum of various diseases, for example, in the former Soviet Union, the positive results are not so well established. However, according to a century of radon treatment experience (after millenniums of unknown radon therapy), in particular in Germany and Austria, the positive medical effects for some diseases far exceed any potential detrimental health effects.The total amount of available data in this field is too large to be covered in a brief review. Therefore, less known - in particular recent - work from Central Europe has been analyzed in an attempt to summarize new developments and trends. This includes cost/benefit aspects of radon reduction programs. As a test case for the LNT (linear non-threshold) hypothesis and possible biopositive effects of low radiation exposures, the data support a nonlinear human response to low and medium-level radon exposures.

Restoration of natural broad-leaved woodland in Central Europe on sites with coniferous forest plantations

The creation and restoration of natural woodland serving diverse socio-economic as well as nature conservation purposes has become a major objective of sustainable forestry throughout Europe. There is a main focus on the conversion of anthropogenous coniferous forests, which are widely spread in the Central European lowlands and mountain ranges, into natural broad-leaved forests. For ecological as well as economic reasons, the integration of natural regeneration processes into conversion management is considered an important task. Taking the woodland of the Menzer Heide (NE Germany), a typical Pleistocene landscape in the northern Central European lowlands as an example, a vegetation analysis of the Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations dominating in this area is presented. As the main results, (1) two communities are differentiated within the present-day pine plantations on the oligotrophic and acidic sandy soils. Indicated by different species compositions, the Dicranum-community and the Oxalis-community occur, the latter growing on sites with higher nutrient availability. (2) The comparison of an historical with the present vegetation analysis reveals an increase of nutrient availability in recent decades, most probably strongly related to the natural soil regeneration of the formerly exploited forest sites. (3) From the results of the vegetation analysis, including records of species and individual numbers of naturally rejuvenated trees, future stand development scenarios can be derived. Thus, the Oxalis-community may directly develop into oak-beech and beech stands as natural forests. In the long term, the Dicranum-community will pass a regeneration stage with pine and oak, probably further developing towards natural oak-beech and beech forests. In conclusion, decisions regarding extensive or intensive management, aiming at the conversion of coniferous plantations into natural broad-leaved forests, can be made following observation of the natural regeneration processes in the present-day stands. By utilising the natural regeneration processes and by applying only a few controlling silvicultural measures, a low-energy and cost-effective conversion of the forests can be accomplished.

Atmospheric phase distribution of oxidized and reduced nitrogen at a forest ecosystem research site

Atmospheric concentrations of gaseous NH3 and HNO3 and of particulate NH4+ and NO3- were measured during various seasons at a forest ecosystem research site in the "Fichtelgebirge" mountains in Central Europe. Air masses arriving at this site were highly variable with respect to trace compound concentration levels and their concentration ratios. However, the distributions of NH4+ and NO3- within the aerosol particle size spectra exhibited some very consistent patterns, with the former dominating the fine particle concentrations, and the latter dominating the coarse particles range, respectively. Overall, the particulate phase (NH4+ + NO3-) dominated the atmospheric nitrogen budget (particulate and gas phase, NH4+ + NO3- + NH3 + HNO3) by more than 90% of the median total mixing ratio in winter, and by more than 60% in summer. The phase partitioning varied significantly between the winter and summer seasons, with higher relative importance of the gaseous species during summer, when air temperatures were higher and relative humidities lower as compared to the winter season. Reduced nitrogen dominated over oxidized nitrogen, indicating the prevailing influence of emissions from agricultural activity as compared to traffic emissions at this mountainous site. A model has been successfully applied in order to test the hypothesis of thermodynamic equilibrium between the particulate and gas phases.

Hunting legislation in the Carpathian Mountains: implications for the conservation and management of large carnivores

The importance of conserving wild populations of large carnivores in balance with local human interests has been recognised throughout the world. However, diverse human activities are in potential conflict with the conservation of large carnivore species. We discuss the role that hunters have in the management of three large carnivore species, the brown bear Ursus arctos, the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx and the wolf Canis lupus in the Carpathian Mountains in central Europe. We considered four different countries (i.e. Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine and Romania), comparing the status of large carnivore populations and the regulations of hunting activities. The situation appears to be generally consistent throughout the Carpathian region, although the degree of protection accorded to wolf varies most. Interactions between large carnivores and hunters are well rooted in the culture of local communities in the four countries considered. The large forested areas make the Carpathians an excellent environment for large carnivores, which here are favoured by low human population density. We underline the need for integration of hunting activities and scientific knowledge for future management practices.

Late Quaternary distributional stasis in the submediterranean mountain plant Anthyllis montana L. (Fabaceae) inferred from ITS sequences and amplified fragment length polymorphism markers.

Anthyllis montana is a submediterranean, herbaceous plant of the southern and central European mountains. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA were sequenced from multiple accessions of the species and several closely related taxa. In addition, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) was analysed from 71 individuals of A. montana collected in 20 localities, mainly in the Pyrenees, Alps, Italian Peninsula and Balkans. Our ITS phylogeny showed a sequential branching pattern in A. montana, implying a western Mediterranean origin followed by an eastward migration. ITS clock calibrations suggest that speciation of A. montana took place at the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, while intraspecific divergence dates to Late Quaternary times (i.e. 0.7 million years ago). The AFLP analyses revealed a major genetic (west/east) subdivision within A. montana, probably caused by the massive glaciation of the Alps during this latter time period. The present-day absence of A. montana from vast parts of the Alps, which appear ecologically suitable for the species, together with the finding of evenly distributed AFLP variability within each of the two western and eastern lineages identified, is taken as evidence for a largely static Late Quaternary history without large-scale migration. High levels of AFLP variation observed among populations, together with weak or absent patterns of isolation by distance, seem to be in accord with long-term population insularization and distributional stasis. However, recent small-scale migration and a narrow hybrid zone between western and eastern lineages need to be postulated to explain the intermediate genetic composition of individuals from the Maritime Alps, a well-known suture-zone for other plant and animal species.

The spread of deciduous Quercus throughout Europe since the last glacial period

For most of the last glacial period, which ended about 10kaBP21kaBP=1000 years before present. All ages given are in radiocarbon years, and differ from calendar years. See text for details.2, the temperate forest species were restricted to small areas (termed refugia) with a milder climate, situated mostly along the Mediterranean borderlands and around the Black Sea. Species only started to expand from these glacial period refugia with the large-scale shifts in the global climate in the late-glacial (15–10kaBP) and the beginning of the Holocene period (10kaBP to present).Fossil pollen data from sites across Europe have been used to reconstruct the location of refugia of the deciduous oak species, and the spread from these refugia into their current ranges. Three areas of southern Europe have been identified as refugia for deciduous Quercus: southern Iberian peninsula, southern Italian peninsula and the southern Balkan peninsula.The spread of Quercus took place in two steps. First, in the late-glacial interstadial (13–11kaBP) Quercus spread to the central European mountains from these refugia. Second, with the stabilisation of a climate favourable to deciduous trees species in the Holocene, oak spread into northern Europe, rapidly into the north–west, and more slowly into the centre and east, due to physical barriers. The earlier distribution changes are strongly correlated with the shifts in climate, whereas the later changes are most strongly controlled by competition between species, landscape topography and other edaphic factors. By approximately 6kaBP, the deciduous oak had reached its maximum extension in Europe.Two types of refugia have been identified from the observed range expansion: primary, full glacial refugia; and secondary, temporary refugia, which supported populations of the oak during the short, climatically unfavourable late-glacial stadial.

Geographical variation in random amplified polymorphic DNA and quantitative traits in Norway spruce

Quantitative traits and random amplified polymorphic DNA variations were investigated on the whole natural range of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Results showed that the species can be separated into two main groups (northern and central Europe) using both types of characters. Such spatial and geographical fragmentation of species natural range rarely occurs in conifers and is consistent with prolonged geographical isolation within two refugial zones located in distinct environmental conditions (Moscow area and east of central European mountains). Within each of these two infraspecific groups, we revealed an apparent uncoupling between quantitative traits (related to growth, phenology, and wood quality) and DNA. However, the combination of both molecular and quantitative traits information provided new insights about geographical patterns of variation: a dominant latitudinal gradient was found in the Baltico-Nordic domain contrasting markedly with the main east–west migration expected from pollen data, while in central Europe, a noticeable longitudinal gradient was congruent with east–west migration. The concordance and discrepancies between quantitative traits and DNA are discussed in terms of historical events in P. abies.

Hysteresis in Reversal of Central European Mountain Lakes from Atmospheric Acidification

Extremely high emissions of S and N compounds in Central Europe (both ∼280 mmol m-2 yr-1) declined by ∼70and ∼35%, respectively, during the last decade. Decreaseddeposition rates of SO4 -2, NO3 -, and NH4 + in the region paralleled emission declines. The reduction in atmospheric inputs of S and N to mountain ecosystemshas resulted in a pronounced reversal of acidification in the Tatra Mountains and Bohemian Forest lakes. Between the 1987–1990and 1997–1999 periods, concentrations of SO4 -2 and NO3 - decreased (average ± standard deviation) by 22±7 and 12±7 μmol L-1, respectively, in theTatra Mountains, and by 19±7 and 15±10 μmol L-1, respectively, in the Bohemian Forest. Their decrease was compensated in part (1) by a decrease in Ca2+ + Mg2+ (17±7 μmol L-1) and H+ (4±6 μmol L-1), and an increase in HCO3 -(10±10 μmol L-1) in the Tatra Mountains lakes, and (2) by a decrease in Al (7±4 μmol L-1), Ca2+ + Mg2+ (9±6 μmol L-1), and H+ (6±5 μmol L-1), in Bohemian Forest lakes. Despite the rapid decline in lake water concentrations of SO4 -2 and NO3 - in response to reduced S and N emissions, their present concentrations in some lakes are higher than predictionsbased on observed concentrations at comparable emission rates during development of acidification. This hysteresis in chemical reversal from acidification has delayed biological recovery of the lakes. The only unequivocal sign of biological recovery hasbeen observed in Cerne Lake (Bohemian Forest) where a cladoceran species Ceriodaphnia quadrangular has recentlyreached its pre-acidification abundance.

Vertical distribution of the alpine lepidoptera in the Carpathians and in the Balkan peninsula in relation to the zonation of the vegetation

The vertical distribution of arctic-alpine, alpine and Balkanic oreal species is discussed in connection with the vertical zonation of the vegetation, climatic conditions, substrate, type of alpine vegetation and co-occurrences of related species. Arctic-alpine species have mostly a Eurasian distribution and occur in the Arctic and in the alpine and subnival zones of the Central and Southern European high mountains with expressed glacial morphology and alpine vegetation. Alpine species are mostly European species and they are connected to the alpine and subnival zones of Central and South European high mountains. Balkanic oreal species are mostly southeast European species which in some cases occur locally in the southern parts of the Alps and Carpathians. Balkanic oreal species are most numerous at the timberline, preferred habitats being grasslands in the upper subalpine belts. The more diverse habitats of limestone mountains are usually home to a higher number of alpine (s. l.) species than that of the mountains consisting of acidic rocks. The apparent petrophily of several alpine and tundro-alpine species correlates with their sheltering behaviour. The vertical distribution of butterflies is probably influenced also by the competition of closely related species. Closely related species often show some types of habitat partitioning. Data on species numbers and vertical distribution of species are presented in the tables 1-4.

Phylogeny and quaternary history of the European montane/alpine endemicSoldanella(Primulaceae) based on ITS and AFLP variation

Soldanella contains 16 species of herbaceous perennials that are endemic to the central and south European high mountains. The genus is ecogeographically subdivided into forest/montane and alpine species. Evolutionary relationships and large-scale biogeographic patterns were inferred from parsimony analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA, and genetic distance analyses based on amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. The ITS region proved useful for examining subgeneric relationships and testing hypotheses on genus-wide divergence times, whereas the AFLP markers were suitable for studying relationships among closely related taxa and biogeographic patterns of divergence. Neither ITS nor AFLP data supported sectional delimitations, particularly those related to the grouping of S. alpina (sect. Soldanella) with S. pusilla (sect. Tubiflores), which may be the result of hybridization. Additional results and conclusions drawn are (1) Soldanella is derived from an ancestor of Asian origin with a montane ecology; (2) estimates of divergence times suggest a late Quaternary origin of the genus; (3) alpine species of sect. Tubiflores diverged from within a paraphyletic sect. Soldanella of mainly montane species; (4) alpine and montane species of Soldanella experienced different cycles of range expansion and contraction during late Quaternary climatic changes, resulting in differential patterns of geographic distribution; and (5) AFLP divergence among montane species from eastern Europe was lower than between alpine species; we hypothesize that the latter differentiated in allopatric regions of expansion during glacials, while the former experienced secondary contact at lower elevations in more southern refugia.

Chemical classes of atmospheric aerosol particles at a rural site in Central Europe during winter

Ambient atmospheric particles were studied at an ecosystem research site in the Fichtelgebirge mountains in Central Europe by single-particle analysis and bulk impactor measurements. Fuzzy clustering analysis of mass spectra of individual aerosol particles allowed chemical classification of the atmospheric aerosol. During the campaign, inorganic salts, mineral particles, and carbonaceous particles, with varying degrees of secondary components, were identified. These chemical classes exhibited preferential size ranges leading to a characteristic pattern of relative abundances with respect to particle size. A more detailed analysis revealed that 65–80% of all particles were assigned almost exclusively to one chemical class. These particle populations are assumed to be externally mixed with respect to the identified chemical classes. The temporal variations of the ratio of nitrate to ammonium (ranging between 0.37 and 0.81) determined by both impactor measurements and single-particle analyses were in good agreement. Through Monte-Carlo-type simulations, confidence intervals of the mean NO 3 −/NH 4 + ratio were calculated for sub-samples of the total particle population.

Distribution of ozone and other air pollutants in forests of the Carpathian Mountains in central Europe

Ozone (O 3) concentrations were monitored during the 1997–1999 growing seasons in 32 forest sites of the Carpathian Mountains. At all sites (elevation between 450 and 1320 m) concentrations of O 3, nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2) were measured with passive samplers. In addition, in two western Carpathian locations, Vychodna and Gubałówka, ozone was continuously monitored with ultraviolet (UV) absorption monitors. Highest average hourly O 3 concentrations in the Vychodna and Gubałówka sites reached 160 and 200 μg/m 3 (82 and 102 ppb), respectively (except for the AOT40 values, ozone concentrations are presented as μg/m 3; and at 25 °C and 760 mm Hg, 1 μg O 3/m 3=0.51 ppb O 3). These sites showed drastically different patterns of diurnal O 3 distribution, one with clearly defined peaks in the afternoon and lowest values in the morning, the other with flat patterns during the entire 24-h period. On two elevational transects, no effect of elevation on O 3 levels was seen on the first one, while on the other a significant increase of O 3 levels with elevation occurred. Concentrations of O 3 determined with passive samplers were significantly different between individual monitoring years, monitoring periods, and geographic location of the monitoring sites. Results of passive sampler monitoring showed that high O 3 concentrations could be expected in many parts of the Carpathian range, especially in its western part, but also in the eastern and southern ranges. More than four-fold denser network of monitoring sites is required for reliable estimates of O 3 distribution in forests over the entire Carpathian range (140 points). Potential phytotoxic effects of O 3 on forest trees and understory vegetation are expected on almost the entire territory of the Carpathian Mountains. This assumption is based on estimates of the AOT40 indices for forest trees and natural vegetation. Concentrations of NO 2 and SO 2 in the entire Carpathian range were typical for this part of Europe and below the expected levels of phytotoxicity.

Sulphur and nitrogen fluxes and budgets in the Bohemian Forest and Tatra Mountains during the Industrial Revolution (1850-2000)

Abstract. Major fluxes of sulphur and dissolved inorganic nitrogen were estimated in Central European mountain ecosystems of the Bohemian Forest (forest lakes) and Tatra Mountains (alpine lakes) over the industrial period. Sulphur outputs from these ecosystems were comparable to inputs during a period of relatively stable atmospheric deposition (10-35 mmol m-2 yr-1) around the 1930s. Atmospheric inputs of sulphur increased by three- to four-fold between the 1950s and 1980s to ~140 and ~60 mmol mm-2 yr-1 in the Bohemian Forest and Tatra Mountains, respectively. Sulphur outputs were lower than inputs due to accumulation in soils, which was higher in forest soils than in the sparser alpine soils and represented 0.8-1.6 and 0.2-0.3 mol m-2, respectively, for the whole 1930-2000 period. In the 1990s, atmospheric inputs of sulphur decreased 80% and 50% in the Bohemian Forest and Tatra Mountains, respectively, and sulphur outputs exceeded inputs. Catchment soils became pronounced sources of sulphur with output fluxes averaging between 15 and 31 mmol m-2 yr-1. Higher sulphur accumulation in the forest soils has delayed (by several decades) recovery of forest lakes from acidification compared to alpine lakes. Estimated deposition of dissolved inorganic nitrogen was 53-75 mmol m-2 yr-1 in the Bohemian Forest and 35-45 mmol m-2 yr-1 in the Tatra Mountains in the 1880- 1950 period, i.e. below the empirically derived threshold of ~70 mmol m-2 yr-1, above which nitrogen leaching often occurs. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen was efficiently retained in the ecosystems and nitrate export was negligible (0-7 mmol m-2 yr-1). By the 1980s, nitrogen deposition increased to ~160 and ~80 mmol m-2 yr-1 in the Bohemian Forest and Tatra Mountains, respectively, and nitrogen output increased to 120 and 60 mmol m-2 yr-1. Moreover, assimilation of nitrogen in soils declined from ~40 to 10-20 mmol m-2 yr-1 in the alpine soils and even more in the Bohemian Forest, where one of the catchments has even become a net source of nitrogen. In the 1990s, nitrogen deposition decreased by ~30% and DIN output decreased to < 70 and 35 mmol m-2 yr-1 in the Bohemian Forest and Tatra Mountains, respectively. New steady-state conditions, with negligible nitrogen export, could be reached in future but at lower nitrogen depositions than in the 1930s. Keywords: emission, deposition, acidification, nitrogen-saturation, recovery, sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, mountain lakes

Review study on near-natural conditions of Central European mountain streams, with particular reference to debris and beaver dams: Results of the “REG meeting” 2000

This paper summarises the results of the “Rhithron Ecology Group” meeting in Essen (March 2000), supplemented by a literature evaluation. An extended view of small mountain streams in Central Europe under “potentially natural conditions” is presented. We focus on the potential impact of natural transverse structures (debris dams and beaver dams) on stream morphology, hydrology, habitat composition and communities. Furthermore, impact of other stream morphological features, which are presently lacking in the Central European landscape, is described. We suggest that Central European mountain streams are characterised by a higher proportion of lentic zones under “potentially natural conditions”. Morphological degradation leads to a loss of lentic zones and to an increase of current velocities and corresponding changes in faunal composition, particularly higher abundance and proportion of rheophilic species and a decrease of species preferring lentic zones. This should be regarded in future stream assessment.