Central European Countries Research Articles

Spatial Diversity Changes in Land Use and Land Cover Mix in Central European Capitals and Their Commuting Zones from 2006 to 2018

This article investigates the land use and land cover (LULC) mosaic as a function of distance to the city centre. The research area is four Functional Urban Areas (FUAs) of the capitals of Central European countries: Czechia (Prague), Poland (Warsaw), Slovakia (Bratislava), and Hungary (Budapest). The article presents LULC mix changes in these FUAs in the context of transformations in urban cores and commuting zones of capital city metropolises, which have large populations and prominent positions in the country or region. The study makes use of Urban Atlas LULC data for 2006, 2012, and 2018. LULC change was analysed using a hexagonal tessellation with the hexagon as the basic spatial unit. Spatial entropy (ENT) and Simpson’s Diversity Index (SIDI) were employed. The change in ENT and SIDI were determined as a function of distance to urban cores, as well as changes on the first level of Urban Atlas nomenclature for 2006–2012 and 2012–2018, as well as on the third level of nomenclature for 2012–2018. The research shows that changes from 2006 to 2012 were more considerable than from 2012 to 2018. It also revealed that, if LULC classes are considered on the first level of nomenclature, diversity in urban cores grows and then declines in commuting zones. An analysis of diversity on the third level of nomenclature demonstrated its decline with the growing distance to the urban core. It has also been demonstrated that the mean values of ENT and SIDI are approximately twice as high in urban cores as in commuting zones, indicating a plateau of the mean value of ENT and SIDI over the study period in urban cores compared to an increase in commuting zones around them. The conducted research will be helpful to urban planners and decision-makers in directing the further, inevitable development of metropolitan areas in accordance with sustainable environmental management.

Environmental asymmetries in global value chains: The case of the European automotive sector

The European automotive sector is deeply integrated in the EU regional value chain. Each EU member show differences their economic and environmental performance. While central European countries perform more advanced, higher-value and lower-emission tasks, eastern economies specialize in manufacturing and have a higher share of exports from an environmental perspective. However, the environmental effects resulting from automotive production, as well as the distinctions among European economies based on their development levels, remain unexplored. Similarly, the implications of participation in global value chains (GVCs) in this context have not been examined. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze the Environmental Kuznets Curve and the Pollution Haven/Halo Hypothesis in the case of the EU28 automotive sector under a value-added approach. The multi-regional input-output methodology along with a panel data estimation was used to verify the hypotheses. The results verify an inverted-N shape curve for the Kuznets hypothesis. Nevertheless, the results show no evidence of compliance with the haven or halo hypotheses. Moreover, participation in GVCs implies higher environmental impacts. Based on these findings, some policy recommendations are proposed to enhance the sector's circularity and optimize material use throughout the production chain.

Diversity within commonality: A comparative study of the impact of foreign direct investment and trade openness on economic growth

The relationships between foreign direct investment (FDI), trade openness, and economic growth are complex and analyzed by many researchers. Still, there are some gaps in our knowledge as literature documents positive, negative, and ambiguous impact of FDI and trade openness on economic growth. This paper addresses one of these gaps and focuses on the similarities and differences among countries from Central and Eastern Europe and West Africa. The econometric analysis covers the 1995-2022 period and employs panel data methods to reveal the long-term positive impact of FDI and trade openness on economic growth in West African countries and long-term positive impact of FDI on economic growth in Central and Eastern European countries. We also demonstrate that apart from cross-border linkages captured by FDI and trade flows, economic growth in Central and Eastern European countries positively correlates with global economic development, however, in case of West Africa this effect is statistically insignificant.

The evolution of regional policy in Switzerland: From a growth oriented to a challenge-led policy?

Switzerland is the only central European country that is not a member of the EU. While the country engages in several bilateral treaties and programs, its regional policy neither follow the EU Cohesion Policy framework nor do they explicitly adopt concepts such as the smart specialization strategy. In this In perspective paper, we explore the evolution of Swiss regional policy within the broader context of shifting paradigms in regional development. While much attention has been given to regional policies within the European Union, there is a notable gap in scholarly analysis concerning Switzerland’s unique approach, particularly in relation to contemporary societal challenges and regional policy debates. This paper seeks to fill that gap by providing a comprehensive examination of Switzerland’s regional policy evolution, which has been developed independently of EU influence.

Making Gender and Sexuality Studies Illegal: Heteronationalism, Anti-gender Mobilization, and the Neoliberal "Utopian" Gaze in Bulgaria, 2018–2023

Abstract: The past decade has witnessed an escalating, well-financed, and well-organized international mobilization against any study, policy, or discussion related to gender or LGBTQI+ issues in many parts of the world. The countries of Central and Eastern Europe have been disproportionately affected by this backlash, resulting in public threats and violence against scholars and representatives of the nongovernmental sector who work on gender and LGBTQI+ issues. The anti-gender mobilization has been extremely successful in Bulgaria, where there have been numerous threats against scholars, nongovernmental organizations, and public figures dealing with gender and sexuality issues. The Bulgarian Constitutional Court was the first court on a global level to pronounce the term "gender" anti-constitutional in response to a request submitted by the government regarding ratification of the so-called Istanbul Convention. Dealing with gender and LGBTQI+ studies in Bulgaria is believed to be "illegal" by many, based on the court's decision. As a result, any approaches to gender and sexuality that do not fit essentialist and religious beliefs have become dangerous and have endangered knowledge in many contexts. In this paper, I discuss the rapid development of the anti-gender mobilization within certain neoliberal discourses and values, and using the concept of a "neoliberal utopian gaze," I outline the challenges gender and sexuality studies have faced. Based on case studies, personal experiences, and public discourses, the paper explores how gender and sexuality studies have been affected by (1) institutional decisions, (2) manipulation of scientific information, (3) radical political populism, (4) transnational religious movements, and (5) the advancement of social media. Finally, the paper discusses possible solutions to this alarming trend, paying particular attention to academic solidarity, knowledge production, and institutionally coordinated policies.

Okun’s law in the Visegrad Group countries: its regional disaggregation and determinants

ABSTRACT The paper examines Okun’s law on a regional level and its determinants for the four Visegrad Group (V4) countries in Central Europe. Unlike other studies on regional Okun’s law, the paper applies a disaggregation procedure to estimate Okun’s law for economies and regions, and seeks to identify the factors that determine the regional heterogeneity observed in Okun coefficients. The analysis uses data for NUTS 2 regions of Czechia, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia for the period 2001–2020. The accounting principle embedded in the disaggregation framework entails that regions around the capital cities display higher unemployment-output responsiveness. With endogeneity handled, the level of economic prosperity and accumulated human capital are found to be robust drivers of differences in the unemployment-output elasticity on a regional level.

Examining the Relationship between Bank Profitability and Economic Growth: Insights from Central and Eastern Europe

Purpose: The purpose of this research article is to investigate the impact of bank profitability on the economic growth of 16 Central and Eastern European countries over the period from 1999 to 2022. The study aims to determine whether higher bank profitability has a positive influence on economic growth, challenging the notion that low bank profitability hinders economic growth.
 Design/methodology/approach: Our study employs an extensive empirical analysis, utilizing a range of econometric methods. We explore the relationship between bank profitability and economic growth, taking into account various factors and control variables. This includes assessing the impact of bank profitability on economic growth by considering a diverse set of economic indicators and factors influencing the banking sector.
 Findings: Our research consistently reveals a statistically and economically significant positive relationship between bank profitability and economic growth. Specifically, a one percent increase in the return on assets of banks is associated with a notable increase in economic growth, falling within the range of 0.534 to 0.625 percentage points. These findings suggest that higher bank profitability contributes positively to the economic growth of the studied Central and Eastern European countries.
 Research limitations/implications: While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between bank profitability and economic growth, it has certain limitations. Future research in this area could delve deeper into the nuanced relationships between different dimensions of bank profitability and economic performance. Additionally, further investigations could explore the effects of varying ownership structures and competition dynamics on economic growth in these countries. This acknowledges the need for more in-depth research and understanding of the complex interplay between bank profitability and economic growth.
 Originality/value: This research contributes to the existing literature by shedding light on the positive impact of bank profitability on economic growth in Central and Eastern European countries. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, financial institutions, and researchers interested in understanding the dynamics between the banking sector and economic development in this region. The study's originality lies in challenging conventional wisdom and highlighting the potentially positive role of bank profitability in economic growth, thereby providing practical and policy-relevant implications.

Innovation barriers as triggers of firms’ eco-innovations: the mediating role of public and market knowledge sourcing

ABSTRACT This study expands the existing knowledge about the impact of innovation barriers on firms and tests whether such barriers stimulate their environmental behaviours. For these purposes, we focus on the specific region of Central Europe, which was considered lagging in previous years. It was caused, on the one hand, by the lower innovation performance of firms and states in comparison with their western neighbours, but also due to a lower environmental perception on the part of the whole society. By using data on 14,808 firms from three Central European countries (Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary) and the Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) method, this study contributes to the ongoing debate regarding the eco-innovation performance of the Central European territory, where such analyses are still rare. Our results show that firms facing innovation barriers tend to create eco-innovations. We confirm our expectation that Central European firms depend on external sources of knowledge acquired on the market. Moreover, we show that even public knowledge resources obtained from universities and research institutions support the creation of eco-innovations. These results allow us to propose several implications for practitioners and policymakers.

Erysiphe corylacearum as a New Pathogen of Hazelnut in the Czech Republic

In July 2021, leaves and shoot tops of the common hazel (Corylus avellana L.), with a whitish coating, were found in the Czech Republic (southern Moravia region). The infected hazel bushes were found along a road in a deciduous forest and in an urban garden. In most European countries, Phyllactinia guttata is found on the abaxial surface of the leaves in the form of a continuous whitish to light grey mycelium, possibly with large black chasmothecia. In our case, the mycelium was present on both sides of the leaves, but the symptoms and the incidence were much stronger on the adaxial side. The first symptoms usually appeared on the adaxial side of the leaves as small white radially expanding patches of mycelium. In the final stage, the spots merged and covered a substantial part of the leaf blade (50–85 % on the adaxial side, 5–25 % on the abaxial side). When the abaxial side of the leaves was infected, chlorotic spots were evident on the adaxial side. The spots of powdery mildew were small (3–15 mm), whitish, rounded to irregular, effuse eventually becoming confluent, and occurred primarily on the adaxial side of the leaves. Conidiophores (30–53×4–6 µm) grew on the amphigenic mycelium, were erect, consisted of 1–3 cells, i.e. cylindrical foot cell and followed 1–2 cells, from which hyaline ellipsoid to doliform-limoniform conidia (17–34 ×15–21) (n = 50) were individually detached. Single or in groups dark brown chasmothecia (77–116 µm in diameter) had up to hyaline 8–15 aseptate straight appendages (50–102 µm) with multiple (3–5×) dichotomously branched apexes and recurved tips. Chasmothecia contained 3–6 asci (42–62 × 34–55 µm) with 4–8 obovoid to broadly ellipsoidal hyaline ascospores (14–22 × 75 µm). Based on morphological characters, the powdery mildew was identified as Erysiphe corylacearum (2). Morphological identification was confirmed by molecular analysis of samples. DNA was extracted from symptomatic leaves tissue using the DNeasy Plant Mini Kit, (Quiagen, Hilden, Germany) and the rDNA internal transcribed spacer region of 2 isolates was amplified using primers PMITS1 and PMITS2 (Cunnington et al. 2003) and sequenced. BLAST analysis of our 720bp fragments (both identical and represented by GenBank accession no. OR432526) showed 100% sequence identity to ITS rDNA sequences of E. corylacearum other countries of Central Europe for example from Austria (MW031866), Italy (MW045428), Hungary (OQ411007), Germany (OP554268) or Slovakia (MT176105). Pathogenicity was verified on two-year-old plants of Corylus avellana. Healthy leaves were artificially infected by dusting conidia from infected leaves. Inoculated plants were incubated under controlled conditions (21–23 °C, 70–80 % relative humidity). Characteristic symptoms of powdery mildew appeared on the adaxial side of the leaves 9–12 days after inoculation. Control plants treated with distilled water remained symptomless. Powdery mildew isolated from inoculated leaves was morphologically identical to isolates from naturally infected leaves. The first record of E. corylacearum in Europe on cultivated hazelnut species was reported by Sezer et al. (2017) in Turkey in 2013. Within a few years, the E. corylacearum spread and was recorded on various species of Corylus in other European countries (for example Mezzalama et al., 2020; Rosati et al., 2021; Beenken et al., 2022; Boneva et al., 2023), East Asia (Arzanlou et al., 2018) and the USA (Meparishvili 2019). To our knowledge, this is the first report of Erysiphe corylacearum in the Czech Republic.

Research of Green Innovation of Companies of Countries with Different Levels of Technological Development of Production

Abstract In the conditions of the transition to higher technological systems in the conditions of the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals, the companies of the world face the question of effective management of green innovative development in their economic activities. The goal of the research is the formation of effective organizational and economic support for green innovations of companies of countries with different levels of technological development of production. This research contains: to describe the known positions of scientific schools regarding the managerial aspects of green innovations of companies of the world; to form the economic support of this administration, by developing an assessment of the potential of green innovations of companies of the world (the data of the Global Innovation Index Report were taken as a source of empirical data), to form criterion values of the potential of green innovations of companies of the countries for the purpose of their clustering. The research methods used include: system method; bibliometric analysis; method of assessing competitiveness; criterion method; method of generalization. The objects of evaluation include companies from five countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The main results of the study include: development of management theory; forming an assessment of the green innovation potential of companies from countries of the world with different levels of technological development of production (the data of the Global Innovation Index Report were taken as a source of empirical data); formation of criterion support for the results of evaluation of the green innovation potential of the countries’ companies. The conclusions of the study should include establishing the actualization of managing green innovations by companies of the world by involving the results of the assessment of the green innovation potential of companies of the world to the formation of the criterion values of this assessment in order to make effective management decisions on the part of all interested stakeholders. For further scientific research, to focus on the formation of effective communication links between different groups of stakeholders, the basis of this scientific direction is the criteria developed by the authors to ensure the level of green innovation potential of companies of countries in order to make effective decisions on the part of stakeholders (state bodies, investors, manufacturers, suppliers, clients, financial institutions) regarding organizational, social, economic support of green innovations of companies of countries with different levels of technological development of production. This study can be useful for the governments of countries in the development of international and national programs for the innovative development of the economy in terms of the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals; to company managers when forming strategic and tactical plans for green innovative business development; to students and scientists in the implementation of scientific and educational programs.

THE NEXUS BETWEEN TRADE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT AND EXPORT: THE CASE OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

The focus of economic policymakers in Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC) is on developing and improving national infrastructure, including roads, railways and other forms of physical infrastructure needed for the realisation of economic activities, with the primary goal being to create a favourable business environment for foreign investments and export intensification. The article aims to examine whether the development of infrastructure in these countries has contributed to the increase in exports and to what extent, which would likewise examine the justification of infrastructure investments as a part of the economic strategy and foreign trade policy. The method of panel regression analysis with fixed effects was applied, which confirms the positive and statistically significant impact of infrastructure on export, justifying the initiative for the development of national infrastructure in the observed countries. Based on the obtained results, valid conclusions have been drawn regarding the theoretical and practical implications of the research, which point to the importance of physical infrastructure development as one of the leading determinants for export incentives.

Detection and genetic identification of Borrelia lusitaniae in questing Ixodes inopinatus tick from Tunisia

BackgroundUntil now, there has been limited information on the prevalence and the phylogeny of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Ixodes ticks in Tunisia, particularly in Ixodes inopinatus. MethodsThe present study aimed to determine the prevalence and the phylogeny of B. burgdorferi s.l., in coexisted I. ricinus and I. inopinatus ticks collected from Northern Tunisia. One hundred questig ticks were collected during winter 2020 by tick-dragging method in Beja gouvernorate located in the north of Tunisia. Real-time PCR panel targeting B. burgdorferi s.l. 23S rRNA gene were performed. Positive DNA samples were subjected to conventional PCRs targeting 457 bp fragment of the Borrelia sp. flagellin (fla) gene using primers FlaF/FlaR. The identified Borrelia sp. isolate underwent partial sequence analysis to determine genospecies and evaluate their phylogenetic position. ResultsThe study revealed a prevalence rate of 28% (28/100) for B. burgdorferi sensu lato in the Ixodes ticks. The prevalence rates across tick species and genders did not show significant variations (p > 0.05). Interestingly, the study underlines the coexistence of I. inopinatus and I. ricinus sharing the same geographic areas in Northern Tunisia. Furthermore, DNA of B. lusitaniae was detected in I. inopinatus ticks for the first time in Tunisia. Revealed B. lusitaniae bacterium is similar to previously identified strains in Mediterranean region, but distinct from those isolated exclusively from countries of Eastern and Central Europe, such as Serbia, Romania, and Poland. This study highlights the prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. in I. ricinus/I. inopinatus ticks, and reveals B. lusitaniae in I. inopinatus ticks for the first time in Tunisia. ConclusionThese findings suggest the involvement of I. inopinatus as a potential vector of this pathogenic genospeciess in Tunisia. This may help understanding the ecology of Ixodes ticks, the natural infection and the transmission dynamics of Borrelia species in this country.

Fish and fishing in the medieval Wrocław (Poland): New insights based on archaeozoological data

Wrocław (Wratislavia, Breslau) was established on the Oder River, at the intersection of important trade routes between the Baltic Sea, Kyivan Rus, and inland countries of Central Europe. The local population was hugely dependent on the resources the river provided, including a rich variety of fishes used for food. Here we analyse a sample of fish remains recovered from five archaeological sites in the territory of the medieval Wrocław. In total, 185 skeletal elements (isolated bones and scales) were processed and 11 species belonging to six families (Acipenseridae, Cyprinidae, Siluridae, Esocidae, and Percidae) were identified. Most remains belong to the bream, tench, and perch, which were common local species. The sturgeon, salmon/trout, and carp were among the highly demanded species and mainly consumed by the nobility. Religious restrictions and habits, especially during periods of fasting, could also have a considerable impact on the volume of fishing and fish consumption. Fishing tools found at the archaeological sites indicate that various techniques were used to catch the freshwater species in the surrounding water bodies, whereas marine fishes were probably imported from the Baltics and purchased on markets. The estimated body length of individuals provide valuable data for zoological analyses and, considering the set of fishing tools found at the studied sites, might also indicate some degree of selectivity in fishing in the medieval Wrocław, although the latter cannot be affirmed due to the applied collecting method.

Zadania Kontrolera Sejmu (ombudsmana) Republiki Litewskiej

The purpose of this article is to analyze the tasks performed by the institution of the Sejm controller in the republic of lithuania. the article takes into account three laws on auditors of the sejm of the republic of lithuania of 1994, 1998 and 2004, assessing the most important legal provisions contained in these documents. The analysis of the systemic position of the controller of the Sejm of the Republic of lithuania in the light of lithuanian laws seems to be an issue worth scientific exploration, as Polish specialist literature lacks considerations on this subject. the subject of the analysis is still a topical issue, as lithuania – similarly to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe – established the institution of the ombudsman during the period of political transformation, which safeguards the rights of citizens. the research goal was achieved through the use of the method of institutional and legal analysis, which was helpful in the analysis of Lithuanian legal acts.

Nowa synteza dziejów gospodarczych średniowiecza (Thomas Ertl, Bauer und Banker. Wirtschaft im Mittelalter, wbg Theiss, Darmstadt 2021, ss. 288)

A new synthesis of the economic history of the Middle Ages (Thomas Ertl, Bauer und Banker. Wirtschaft im Mittelalter, wbg Theiss, Darmstadt 2021, 288pp) The article is an analysis of a book by the Austrian historian Thomas Ertl. It is a new and original history of the economic life in the Middle Ages. The author not only discusses the main economic phenomena, but also devotes much space to the social and cultural dimension of the history of the medieval economy. The book abounds in a variety of details including those concerning demography or the semiotics of manufacturing and commercial activities. The author skilfully presents the realities of the medieval economy by comparing them with analogous phenomena and figures from the twentieth century. An important part of this comprehensive book is made up of information on economic historiography and its most outstanding representatives in the twentieth century. In this the author demonstrates the differences in the views of scholars from different generations. The geographical scope of the book encompasses mainly the most developed countries of Latin Europe, and, comparatively and complementarily, Byzantium, the Arab world and Rus’. The main shortcoming of this original and valuable work is the almost complete omission of the countries of Central Europe.

Architectural Perspectives on Wood Reuse within Circular Construction: A South–Central European Study

This study explores the perspectives and practices of architects regarding the reuse of wood in construction across five South–Central European countries: Slovenia, Serbia, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), and Montenegro. Based on a survey of architectural professionals, this research explores their attitudes, challenges, and motivations for using reclaimed wood, with a focus on circular construction principles. Key findings reveal unanimous agreement among respondents that both their profession and government entities inadequately support or promote wood reuse within the context of circular construction. While architects value reclaimed wood, there are country-specific variations. Environmental benefits, unique aesthetics, historical value, and sustainability are cited as primary motivators for reclaimed wood use. Additionally, respondents emphasize the ecological aspect as the most important consideration in wood product reuse, followed by economic and technological factors. Common concerns revolve around the long-term quality and maintenance of wood products. This research provides insights into the challenges and opportunities surrounding reclaimed wood use in South–Central Europe, highlighting the need for support mechanisms and increased awareness to advance circular construction practices in the region. These findings can have implications for architects and investors by identifying market opportunities, promoting eco-friendly practices, and providing valuable insights for future building designs with a focus on reclaimed wood elements within circular construction.

Outward investment of Portuguese small and medium enterprises in the Central and Eastern European countries: motivations and challenges

Background This paper identifies the determinant factors of Portuguese investment in Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic. We assume that investment abroad is motivated by business opportunities, and the quality-price ratio of the workforce. Methods To this end, we used a qualitative methodology composed of 6 case studies, based on interviews and surveys with the managers of the Portuguese firms investing in those three economies. Results Despite the business opportunities, Portuguese investment directed towards these economies is negligible, due, in part, to the geographic and cultural distance. However, the economic and political stability, combined with market size and growth potential are undeniable attraction factors for Portuguese investors. Small and medium enterprises (SMEs), due to their flexible conditions that allow changes in the activity, and the strong trend towards outsourcing, to the detriment of the manufacturing industry, are the primary focus of international investment. This trend, although common to several sectors, has shown greater dynamism in the banking and financial sector. Conclusions The results suggest market-oriented investments aiming at growth and expansion. The vast Polish market is the one that most attracted Portuguese investors. The hybrid feature of some strategies can align with the cautious attitude towards the investment translated into cooperation agreements with financial institutions for funding, the market learning process, and the training of the personnel. The anticipation of the installation over potential competitors, the experience in production and international markets, the price-quality ratio, the capacity of product adaptation and the design were considered important sources of competitive advantage that motivated the investment. The greatest difficulties during this process were language and the complexity of legislation.

SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES MECHANISMS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE COUNTRIES (CASE OF POLAND)

Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are widely used in most developing countries and in many developed countries. The main goal of this study is to identify mechanisms of SEZs functioning and their role in the economic development of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (based on the examples of Poland). As a result of the study presented in the article, the conclusions can be drawn that in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe SEZs are successfully used both as a tool of investment and industrial policy, and through the mechanisms of functioning of SEZs, the interests of private investors and national goals of economic development of the countries are actually merged. The formation of SEZs in Central and Eastern European countries is aimed at industrial development, in particular export production, involvement of advanced technologies and domestic R&D, development of innovative potential of the countries, employment generation, etc. SEZs in Poland serves as an effective tool for the investment policy and are actually part of a competitive package of measures that are used to attract foreign investors along with other forms of promotion of foreign investment. In the history of economic development of SEZs, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, a wealth of experience has been accumulated in attracting foreign investment, and its analysis and use can be useful in justifying the methods and organization of state investment policy in transition countries, including Ukraine.

De la „Cortina de fier” la „Cortina de nailon”.România și Marea Britanie în anii destinderii, 1960-1970

The article analyses the evolution of Romanian-British relations in the context of the détente. The mirror image of general and special interests, the way in which the diplomatic agenda of the two countries was structured in the light of the dynamics of the Cold War, and the transformations the world went through in the 1960s show that British interests toward Romania must be seen in the broader context of the redefinition of the UK’s foreign policy towards the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. If at the beginning of the Cold War, relations between Romania and the UK were completely frozen, limited to minimal diplomatic representation, in the second half of the 1960s, a completely different dynamic can be detected. The opening to the East was dictated by both specific interests and the traditional lines of British diplomacy in the region. On the other hand, access to technology was a priority for the Romanian Government and, as can be seen from the evolution of economic data, Romania bought industrial plant and equipment from the British market on a massive scale. On the other hand, while becoming an important partner in technology transfer, Bucharest pushed for trade liberalisation and allowing Romanian products access to the British market.

Employees' engagement, family ownership, or gender diversity? Searching for determinants of SMEs' green behaviors in CEE countries

AbstractResults of this study go against previous expectations regarding the positive effects of boards' and owners' gender diversity and family ownership on SMEs' green behaviors, expressed by the implementation of proactive environmental strategies (PES) and energy consumption monitoring (ECM). We show that such generally accepted and recommended concepts may not always work, specifically within Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries. Based on the foundations of stakeholder theory, we surprisingly reject hypotheses expecting positive effects of boards' gender diversity on SMEs' green behaviors. Compared to the research to date, we newly examine the effect of the frequency of manager–employee meetings on SMEs' green behaviors. We show that SMEs' implementation of PES and ECM requires a different frequency of employee engagements. In addition, we confirm that the presence of environmental managers is fruitful for the implementation of PES in family firms. We also reveal that family firms' ECM is significantly triggered by energy taxes, but also by the owners' gender diversity. By linking the managerial perspective including employees' engagement and PES with the technical discipline of ECM, this study provides several theoretical and practical implications.