Central American Countries Research Articles

Neoliberalism and the Global Migrant Crisis: A World-Ecology Perspective

What is the nexus between capitalism, agroecological change, and geopolitical conflicts, and how has it historically affected global migratory movements? In answering this question, the present article employs the method of incorporated comparison and world-ecology theory based on the cases of Latin America, specifically Mexico, Venezuela, and Central American countries, and the Broader Middle East, with a particular emphasis on Syria and Afghanistan. A comparative study of these geopolitical hotspots reveals how the US-led cycles of capitalist world-ecology resulted in a global migrant crisis driven by a combination of factors, including neoliberal economic policies, imperialist interventions, narco-colonialism, and extractive capitalism.

Association of holidays and the day of the week with suicide risk: multicounty, two stage, time series study

ObjectivesTo assess the short term temporal variations in suicide risk related to the day of the week and national holidays in multiple countries.DesignMulticountry, two stage, time series design.SettingData from 740...

Systematic Review of Instruments to Assess Computational Thinking in Early Years of Schooling

Computational thinking (CT) is considered a key competence in today’s digital era. It is an emerging construct that relates to critical thinking and creativity. Research on its assessment is in the process of consolidation. This systematic review aims to analyze studies that have used CT assessment instruments for children and adolescents aged 4 to 16 years in order to identify which variables, they assess and their psychometric properties. The search and analysis were carried out following the PRISMA statement protocol, analyzing 50 articles published between 2006 and March 2023. An increase in the publication of CT measurement instruments is observed, with 54% of them supported by evidence of validity and 88% by reliability, highlighting construct validity, followed by content and criteria validity. China leads in the number of publications, while Asia and Europe concentrate most of the research. There is a noticeable contribution from South America, evidencing the lack of participation from Central and South American countries in this field of study.

Central America’s agro-ecological suitability for cultivating coca, Erythroxylum spp

Abstract We assess how much of Central America is likely to be agriculturally suitable for cultivating coca (Erythroxylum spp), the main ingredient in cocaine. Since 2017, organized criminal groups (not smallholders) have been establishing coca plantations in Central America for cocaine production. This has broken South America’s long monopoly on coca leaf production for the global cocaine trade and raised concerns about future expansion in the isthmus. Yet it is not clear how much of Central America has suitable biophysical characteristics for a crop domesticated in, and long associated with the Andean region. We combine geo-located data from coca cultivation locations in Colombia with reported coca sites in Central America to model the soil, climate, and topography of Central American landscapes that might be suitable for coca production under standard management practices. We find that 47% of northern Central America (Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize) has biophysical characteristics that appear highly suitable for coca-growing, while most of southern Central America does not. Biophysical factors, then, are unlikely to constrain coca’s spread in northern Central America. Whether or not the crop is more widely planted will depend on complex and multi-scalar social, economic, and political factors. Among them is whether Central American countries and their allies will continue to prioritize militarized approaches to the drug trade through coca eradication and drug interdiction, which are likely to induce further expansion, not contain it. Novel approaches to the drug trade will be required to avert this outcome.

FIRST RECORDS OF AEDES TORMENTOR AND CULEX PANOCOSSA AS A RESULT OF VECTOR SURVEILLANCE ACTIVITIES CONDUCTED DURING THE CHARACTERIZATION OF FOCI OF EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS IN TAMAULIPAS, MEXICO.

We report the 1st records of Aedes tormentor and Culex panocossa throughout vector surveillance events carried out in putative foci of eastern equine encephalitis in Tamaulipas, Mexico. Formerly, Ae. tormentor had been reported in, at least, 2 Central American countries and Mexico. In Mexico, reports were from the states of Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, and Veracruz. Records of Ae. tormentor in these 4 Neotropical states were recently reviewed and eliminated; thus, the southernmost geographic distribution for this species is considered to be the state of Tamaulipas Mexico in its neotropical zone. Further, Cx. panocossa had been collected in Guerrero, Tabasco, and Veracruz. In Tamaulipas, there are 82 species of mosquitoes, being the 4th state accounting for the highest mosquito species diversity of 11 states in which comprehensive studies have been conducted on the subject of mosquito distribution.

Improving medication safety in a Latin American hospital: Examination of medication errors and the role of pharmacists.

In an effort to expedite the publication of articles, AJHP is posting manuscripts online as soon as possible after acceptance. Accepted manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and copyedited, but are posted online before technical formatting and author proofing. These manuscripts are not the final version of record and will be replaced with the final article (formatted per AJHP style and proofed by the authors) at a later time. Prospective medication order review by a clinical pharmacist is uncommon in many South and Central American countries. Voluntary error reporting and analysis are similarly uncommon. This paper describes the results of pharmacist prospective order review, medication error reporting, and quality improvement activities in a Latin American hospital. On January 1, 2020, the hospital initiated prospective review of all medication orders in both the hospital and clinic setting by pharmacists. Health professionals were encouraged to report errors identified to the hospital's voluntary reporting program. Data collected included the medication name and dose, stage of the medication use process, error severity, and error cause. Error reports were periodically reviewed by pharmacy staff. In the 402,100 orders reviewed, errors were found in 605 inpatient orders and 405 clinic orders (0.25%). Most errors were identified before they reached the patient (69.9% of inpatient errors and 81.0% of clinic errors). The prescribing phase was associated with the highest proportion of errors (50.8% of inpatient errors and 41.7% of clinic errors). The most common reasons for prescribing errors were confusing orders and wrong doses. Analgesics (22.7%) and antibiotics (21.3%) were the medication classes most frequently identified. After aggregated review, pharmacists generated 19 clinical alerts leading to system changes and staff education. This study demonstrates the impact of prospective order review by pharmacists on patient safety. In addition to preventing errors from reaching the patient, voluntary error reporting and evaluation led to system changes intended to reduce the likelihood that similar errors would occur again.

Platform politics in Latin America: Equalizers, normalizers, laggards, and marginals

How has the adoption of internet-based platform politics impacted Latin American party systems? This paper fills an important gap by creating novel categories and tracing patterns for understanding how political parties of 18 Central and South American countries practice politics online. Our work is informed by the equalization versus normalization debate between that sees the Internet as either consolidating institutional parties’ strength or giving strategic advantage to new and smaller parties. Our analysis takes a four-step approach to address the initial question. First, we conceptualize platform politics in a Latin American context and generate hypotheses. Second, we create a dataset to map online and offline national party systems across Latin America. Third, we introduce four categories (equalizers, normalizers, laggards, marginals) to capture different parties’ online positioning. Last, we explore platform politics by comparing four parties belonging to the different categories – FMLN in El Salvador, Novo in Brazil, PPC in Peru, and MORENA in Mexico – and showing how they use social media to overcome their structural limits. Overall, this work finds great regional variation to extend the validity of the cyclical nature of equalization and normalization to the Latin American context.

Bankers and Sheriffs? The Economy, Public Security, and Vote Intention for Presidential Incumbents in Central America

ABSTRACT Students of Latin American politics have identified the economy and public security as relevant determinants of voting behaviour. This article extends those insights to Central America. We use a decade of AmericasBarometer data from 2008 to 2018 to study whether voters in six Central American countries prioritise economic or public security issues when casting votes for the incumbent candidate or party. The results reveal that positive economic perceptions – retrospective national outlook in particular – help explain rewarding incumbents. In turn, the perception of insecurity, more than crime victimisation, is related to punishing incumbents. Therefore, the evidence suggests Central Americans behave like bankers and sheriffs when casting votes, although economic views weigh more than public security perceptions. The results indicate strikingly similar accountability patterns across countries.

Differences in Prevalence of Histologic Gastric Cancer Subtypes Between Mestizo and Mayan Populations in Guatemala.

Although the intestinal subtype of gastric cancer (GC) is most prevalent around the world, a relatively high prevalence of the diffuse subtype has been reported in some populations of Central American countries, including Guatemala. This study aimed to investigate whether differences exist in the prevalence of the two GC subtypes in the two main ethnic groups in Guatemala, namely Mayan and Mestizo (known as Ladino in Guatemala), between whom significant socioeconomic disparities exist, and to determine whether there is an association with Helicobacter pylori/CagA seropositivity. Participants included 65 patients with GC and 135 age-/sex-matched controls. Data on ethnicity, H. pylori and CagA seropositivity status, as well as tumor subtype (diffuse or intestinal) were collected. Logistic regression models were fitted to examine the relationship between predictor variables (age, sex, ethnicity, H. pylori, and CagA) and the binary response variable (tumor type). Model selection was based on the Akaike information criterion. The prevalence of diffuse GC was found to be significantly higher in the Mayan compared with the Mestizo population in Guatemala. Although seropositivity for CagA was significantly higher in patients with GC, there were no significant differences between the two GC subtypes. This study suggests that there are differences in the prevalence of intestinal and diffuse GC histologic subtypes between the two main ethnic groups in Guatemala. Further studies are warranted, given the potential higher prevalence of the more severe GC subtype in the most vulnerable population.

High Hepatitis B Prevalence and Vaccination Needs Among Transgender Women and Men Sex Workers in Barcelona, Spain.

Transgender women sex workers (TWSWs) and men sex workers (MSWs) are especially vulnerable to acquiring hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. We aimed to describe HBV prevalence (hepatitis B surface antigen [HBsAg] and core antibody [HBcAb]) and associated risk factors for HBV exposure (HBcAb), to assess vaccination status and risk factors for no prior vaccination, and to compare HBV prevalence and vaccination status between TWSWs and MSWs. The SexCohort study was advertised to TWSWs and MSWs through several communication channels. At cohort entry through 2 community-based organizations in Barcelona, the study population was screened for HBV and other sexually transmitted infections, and an epidemiological questionnaire was administered (n = 271). Overall, 93.0% of participants were migrants, mostly from South and Central American countries. HBsAg prevalence was 1.9% (TWSWs, 2.4%; vs MSWs, 0.9%; P = .42), and previous exposure to HBV was 31.8% (TWSWs, 38.5%; vs MSWs, 20.8%; P = .002). Over 5 years of sex work (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 9.35), prior exposure to Treponema pallidum (aOR, 3.49), and treatment with anxiolytic drugs (aOR, 3.23) were associated with HBV exposure. Overall, 33.7% of participants exhibited immunity from vaccination (TWSWs, 30.8%; vs MSWs, 38.61%; P < .001), while 34.4% were candidates to HBV vaccination (TWSWs, 30.8%; vs MSWs, 40.6%; P < .001). Never having been on pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV (odds ratio [OR], 4.23) and non-Spanish origin (OR, 5.00) were associated with no prior HBV vaccination. There is a need to reinforce screening and vaccination programs aimed at TWSWs and MSWs as integrated services offered at the community centers commonly accessed by these populations.

Changes in the economics of coffee production between 2008 and 2019: a tale of two Central American countries

Increasing costs of coffee production relative to coffee prices has led to concern across the industry of lack of profitability of coffee production especially for smallholders who comprise a large majority of producers. This study compares coffee production costs and income over a decadal interval of 2008 versus 2019 for coffee farmers in some of the main coffee growing regions of Costa Rica and Guatemala. Costs and income were collected by farmer recall using a standard questionnaire with trained research surveyors. Net income as assessed by EBITDA (earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) increased by about 30% in Costa Rica, but declined to a third of its 2008 level in Guatemala. Agronomic costs of production per hectare increased by 31% in Costa Rica and 62% in Guatemala, mostly due to increased labor costs (higher daily wage rates), while fertilizer usage increased but unit costs remained stable. Gross income was stable in Guatemala but increased in Costa Rica due to receiving significantly higher prices for their coffee in 2019 compared to 2008, while in Guatemala prices declined. Nevertheless, the response was not uniform between farms in Costa Rica while high and medium productivity groupings of farms had higher EBITDA, low and very low productivity farms experienced a decline similar to Guatemala. The difference in performance of farm groups in Costa Rica was due to a decline in production per hectare of the lower productivity group; while the difference between Guatemala and Costa Rica was firstly due to price differences, and secondarily due to lower productivity of some farm groups. The investment of Costa Rican farmers was undoubtedly supported by the substantially increased price received by farmers (as compared to Guatemala), reflected in the increase in export price of coffee from Costa Rica relative to Guatemala. This shows the importance of farmers receiving higher prices for their produce in enabling them to cover increasing production costs, invest in increasing productivity and maintain profitability.

Sexual risk behaviour among in-school adolescents in Central America

ABSTRACT The purpose of the study was to assess sexual risk behaviours among young people in Central America. Secondary data were analysed from 15,807 school adolescents (mean age = 14.4 years) who were part of the most recent cross-sectional Global School Based Student Health Survey (GSHS) in six Central American countries. Results show that almost a quarter (24.3%) of participants had sexual initiation, with 19.7% in Guatemala and 40.9% in Panama. Among those students who had sexual initiation, 51.7% had it early (≤14 years), 27.7% had non-condom use, 45.1% had non-birth control use and 41.5% had multiple sexual partners. Older age (≥15 years), male sex, psychological distress, suicide attempt, bullying victimization, school truancy, in physical fight, history of alcohol intoxication, trouble from alcohol use, no physical education, physical injury, soft drink intake and low parental support were associated with sexual risk behaviours. One in four adolescents in the Central America had sexual risk behaviours, calling for interventions.

Multiple sclerosis in Central America and Caribbean countries: frequency and clinical characterization of an emergent disease.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a common neurological disease among white populations of European origin. Frequencies among Latin Americans continue to be studied, however, epidemiologic, and clinical characterization studies lack from Central American and Caribbean countries. Ethnicity in these countries is uniformly similar with a prevalent Mestizo population. Data from January 2014 to December 2019 from Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, and Aruba on demographic, clinical, MRI and phenotypic traits were determined in coordinated studies: ENHANCE, a population-based, retrospective, observational study on incidence and clinical characteristics, and from the subgroup with MS national registries (Aruba, Dominican Republic, Honduras, and Panama), data on prevalence, phenotypes and demographics. Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), and therapeutic schemes were included. ENHANCE data from 758 patients disclosed 79.8% of Mestizo ethnicity; 72.4% female; median age at onset 31.0 years and 33.2 at diagnosis. The highest incidence rate was from Aruba, 2.3-3.5 × 100,000 inhabitants, and the lowest, 0.07-0.15 × 100,000, from Honduras. Crude prevalence rates per 100,000 inhabitants fluctuated from 27.3 (Aruba) to 1.0 (Honduras). Relapsing MS accounted for 87.4% of cases; EDSS <3.0 determined in 66.6% (mean disease duration: 9.1 years, SD ± 5.0); CSF oligoclonal bands 85.7%, and 87% of subjects hydroxyvitamin D deficient. Common initial therapies were interferon and fingolimod. Switching from interferon to fingolimod was the most common escalation step. The COVID-19 pandemic affected follow-up aspects of these studies. This is the first study providing data on frequencies and clinical characteristics from 8 countries from the Central American and Caribbean region, addressing MS as an emergent epidemiologic disorder. More studies from these areas are encouraged.

Risk factors associated with amputations in patients with diabetic foot infection. Seven years of experience in a reference hospital in Panama. The diabetic foot study group at Chiriqui (the FOOTCHI study group)

AimsTo determine the risk factors associated with amputations in hospitalized patients with diabetic foot infection. Methodsthis is a prospective study conducted at a tertiary care hospital in Panama between January 2010 and December 2016. We included all patients admitted to the hospital with diabetes and diabetic foot infection. A total of 351 patients were included, and a survey to assess for demographic and clinical factors was completed prospectively until discharge. The outcome was lower limb amputation. ResultsSixty-one participants (17.4 %) required a lower limb amputation, and 22 (36.1 %) were major amputations. Several factors were associated with amputation in the univariate analysis: history of foot infection, history of amputation, peripheral arterial disease, a major index ulcer area, duration of the index ulcer >30 days, Grade III 3D severity according to Texas scale, a greater IDSA classification, the presence of necrosis and osteomyelitis. Nevertheless, multiple logistic regression revealed significant relationships between amputations and necrosis (P < 0.0001), osteomyelitis (P < 0.0001), and a severe IDSA classification (P = 0.008). ConclusionIn patients with diabetes foot infection, the presence of osteomyelitis, necrosis and a severe IDSA classification were strongly associated with amputation. Clinical relevanceThe rates of lower limb amputations in diabetic foot infections are higher in Hispanics than Caucasians, moreover, data on risk factors for amputation from diabetic foot infection in Latin American countries and specially Central American countries is scarce and there is no data in Panama.

Mapping climate adaptation corridors for biodiversity-A regional-scale case study in Central America.

Climate adaptation corridors are widely recognized as important for promoting biodiversity resilience under climate change. Central America is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, but there have been no regional-scale analyses of potential climate adaptation corridors in Central America. We identified 2375 potential corridors throughout Central America that link lowland protected areas (≤ 500 m) with intact, high-elevation forests (≥ 1500 m) that represent potential climate change refugia. Whereas we found potential corridors in all Central American countries, potential corridors in Panama, Belize, and Honduras were most protected (medians = 64%, 49%, and 47%, respectively) and potential corridors in El Salvador were least protected (median = 10%). We also developed a corridor priority index based on the ecological characteristics and protected status of potential corridors and their associated start and end points. Compared to low- and medium-priority corridors, high-priority corridors (n = 160; top 7% of all corridors) were generally more protected, forested, and distributed across wider elevational gradients and more Key Biodiversity Areas, but also generally linked larger lowland protected areas to target areas that were larger, more protected, and spanned wider elevational gradients. For example, based on median values, high-priority corridors were 9% more protected and overlapped with 2-3 more Key Biodiversity Areas than low- and medium-priority corridors. Although high-elevation targets spanned considerably wider elevational gradients than lowland protected areas (medians = 695 vs. 142 m, respectively) and thus may be more likely to support refugia, they were considerably smaller than lowland protected areas (medians = 11 vs. 50 km2 respectively) and mostly unprotected (median = 4% protection). This initial, regional assessment can help prioritize locations for finer-scale research, conservation, and restoration activities in support of climate adaptation corridors throughout Central America and highlights the need for greater conservation of potential high-elevation refugia.

Knowledge of Climate Change in Developing Countries and Its Effects

Climate change impacts all countries, but the effects can be particularly staggering for low-income countries. While first-world countries such as the United States face challenges due to climate change and global warming, plenty of resources and research are available to address them. However, third-world countries do not have the same opportunities and assets to face climate change and overcome it. One such country is Honduras which is known for facing water security issues. A group of researchers and I went to Honduras to conduct research through the use of interviews and surveys on the impacts of climate change and how water is affected, resulting in the findings that people do not recognize climate change, yet it leads to worsened quality of life due to poor water quality, unreliable crop yield, and even job loss. The information from Honduras is further compared with other Central and South American countries, and the effects of climate change from an economic and social viewpoint are researched. Ultimately, the primary danger identified is people not taking climate change seriously, which leads to low-income areas becoming heavily impacted.

Moniliophthora perniciosa in Angola, Africa-the First Record in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Moniliophthora perniciosa causes a destructive disease known as witches' broom disease of cacao (WBDC). WBDC has been responsible for major reductions in production or even total abandonment of cacao plantations in most countries that it has invaded. To date, however, the disease is known only from the cacao-producing regions of South America and a few Central American and Caribbean countries. It is not known from the Eastern Hemisphere and remains a major threat should it invade West Africa or Southeast Asia, where the majority of the world's chocolate production now occurs. In 2019, a pink pigmented mushroom was found fruiting from unidentified twigs in the Serra Vamba of Angola. The specimen was identified as M. perniciosa based on morphological and molecular analyses. Although Angola is not a major cacao-producing country, the presence of the fungus in the Eastern Hemisphere could be of global concern and may indicate the need for quarantine in Angola and vigilance in neighboring countries.

Navigating the pandemic: A critical perspective on COVID-19 responses in Central America

Following the World Health Organization’s declaration of the new coronavirus as a pandemic, nations had to act swiftly to draft effective strategies for the prevention and containment of COVID-19. International literature highlights a range of approaches taken by countries, with varying degrees of success, as measured by the quality and responsiveness of their public health systems. This brief perspective proposes a critical-gerontological reflection on the Central American countries, highlighting the divergent regional approaches to the pandemic that resulted in unequal figures between nations. Despite the intention to face the health challenge collectively, varying governmental positions had a direct impact on the health of the older population. Costa Rica and Panama responded similarly to the crisis, showcasing their better social and health scenarios compared to their peers. The Central American approach to public health was tailored to the political ideology of each country, rather than adhering to the common objectives set by the regional integration scheme in place. Despite the pandemic posing a challenge, the region remains committed to building universal, equitable, and comprehensive public health for older people.

Labor Borders: Recruitment of Central American Migrants in “Exodus” through Southern Mexico and Indigenous Mexican “Braceros” in the Californian Fields

The article proposes the concept of “labor border” to explore the evolution of migration policies in the Central America-Mexico-USA region by investigating the dimension of work, through two case studies: (1) the US H-2A program for the temporary recruitment of foreign agricultural workers from Mexico; and subsequently (2) the Mexican regularization programs with temporary labor opportunity, implemented by the Mexican government in the context of the so-called “Central American exodus”: Social Emergency Program (Programa de Emergencia Social) and Sowing Life (Sembrando Vida). The objective of the research is to analyze how the political use of a labor border contributes to the social construction of a hierarchy of immigrant workers, as well as to the progressive closure of borders, and the outsourcing of control operations by the USA to the south of Mexico and other Central American countries. The research took place between March 2016 and December 2021, with a combination of mainly qualitative methodologies.

Partisanship with Rightist and Leftist Parties in Central America: A Test of Four Hypotheses

Abstract Although scholars have made substantial progress in the debate on party systems in Latin America, many questions about partisanship in the region remain unaddressed. This article explores how the determinants of partisanship identified in the literature navigate in Central America, a region commonly overlooked by scholars. We examine a decade of public opinion surveys by the Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP) from 2008 to 2018 to explore the individual-level determinants of partisan attachments with sixty-six leftist and rightist parties in six Central American countries to test four hypotheses. While differences across countries exist, self-placement on the left-right ideological scale, engagement in societal organizations, and protest participation help portray partisan attachments.