Census Forms Research Articles

ОСОБЕННОСТИ СТАТИСТИЧЕСКОГО УЧЕТА В НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫХ ОКРАИНАХ РОССИЙСКОЙ ИМПЕРИИ В КОНЦЕ XIX - НАЧАЛЕ XX ВЕКА (ПО МАТЕРИАЛАМ СТАТИСТИЧЕСКИХ КОМИТЕТОВ КАЗАХСКОЙ СТЕПИ)

The paper examines the features of statistical records in the ethnic periphery of the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries on the materials of the regional statistical committees of the Governor-Generalship of the Steppes. Based on the analysis of identified sources and systematized research, the author reveals the challenges encountered by the regional statistical services. Taking into account the specifics of the periphery’s administrative structure and nomadic farm lifestyle, the paper describes how statistical recording services adapted their census forms.

Improving the Collection of National Health Data: the Case for the Middle Eastern and North African Checkbox for Communities in the USA.

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is reviewing current minimum standards for collecting race/ethnicity data on federal forms. This review is extremely important for Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) Americans, who have been overlooked and unable to receive federal funding for their communities for decades. MENA individuals are defined as "White," which is particularly concerning given that research continues to identify that their health and lived experiences differ from Whites. From January to April 2023, the OMB requested public comments on a separate MENA checkbox. The purpose of this research was to describe public comments regarding the addition of the MENA checkbox on the US Census and other federal forms. A public comment period outlining changes to the collection of race/ethnicity data on the US Census and other federal forms opened in January 2023. Public comments were reviewed to determine whether MENA was mentioned, whether comments supported a MENA checkbox, and whether comments mentioned acceptance for health-related reasons. There were 6700 comments reviewed. Most (73.88%) mentioned adding a MENA checkbox. Of those, 99.31% accepted adding the checkbox. Among the comments that accepted adding a MENA checkbox, 29.09% mentioned health, 44.75% mentioned linguistic/language services, and 44.75% mentioned education-related reasons. Overall, the comments reviewed demonstrated strong acceptance of the addition of a MENA checkbox on federal forms. These findings are encouraging, yet further review is needed to contribute to the OMB's final decision on whether to add the checkbox and uncover the health of this population.

White, or not quite? Predicting Arab American responses to racial categorization forms

We examined the implications of the institutional racial/ethnic designation of Arab Americans as White. Do Arab Americans prefer this categorization or another, and what factors predict categorization in one way or another? In Study 1, a representative sample of Arab Americans in Southeast Michigan (N = 1,001 57% female, ages 18 to 88, Age M = 43.64) completed measures of perceived discrimination, various forms of social identification, and self-categorized from Census-designated racial categories. Self-categorization as “Other” was significantly predicted by experiences of discrimination, Muslim religious affiliation, and having darker skin. In Study 2, with a convenience sample of Arab American college students (52% female, Age M = 20.25), participants were randomly assigned to self-categorize as either “White” or as “Middle Eastern/North African” and then completed measures of perceived discrimination and various forms of social identification. Assigned self-categorization as “Middle Eastern/North African” significantly predicted subgroup respect towards Arabs, but only among those who strongly identified as American. Far from being a neutral, merely reflective method of categorization, the Census and similar categorization forms are sites of racial/ethnic socialization. Respondents bring to such forms their social psychological experience. For many Arab Americans, a host of social experiences indicate the (in)appropriateness and meaning of being forced to self-categorize as White or being allowed to self-categorize differently.

Census Racial Metadata: Categories Used for Different Racial Groups Across Countries and Time

ABSTRACTA national census enables a government to comprehend its population. Questions concerning race and ethnicity are often included in census forms. We examined the racial category options provided in 35 countries' historical census forms over multiple decadal censuses. Analysis of these metadata options can help in understanding the way that official measures of race are socially constructed and reconstructed over place and time according to changing circumstances.

Harmonization of 2020 Round of National Census Programs Across the CIS. Towards the International Comparability of Results

This study draws on the findings of a survey conducted by the Interstate Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS-Stat) in the framework of a joint project with the UNFPA – CISPop «Better Data for Better Policies».The paper aims to present the author’s assessment of the level of harmonization between the national census programs across the CIS and the inter-comparability of their results in terms of total population size and its composition. The study is based on the analysis of methodological documents, which include census forms, manuals for census enumerators (census takers) and technical materials for census personal, that describes the concepts, definitions, and classifications used in national censuses. For countries where no censuses were taken, the authors used materials from pilot censuses and drafts of census documents.The study established that among countries there is a high degree of coherence of national census programs in terms of the key topics, concepts, and classifications used, as well as the wordings of the questions and their prompts. Simultaneously, the analysis allowed us to determine that national statistical services of the region focus on the expectations of their respective populations and take into account national legislation, local conditions, and traditions. First of all, nation-specific features manifested themselves in the formulation of questions concerning the economic, educational, and ethno-cultural characteristics of the population.Analysis of the materials of the works performed on the implementation of the 2020 round of population census programs across the CIS indicates that, based on the data of population censuses conducted in the past few years, it is possible to obtain harmonized data on the size and main characteristics of the population of countries, to provide international comparisons both within the CIS region, and between countries of the region and other countries of the world. International statistical community should be well informed about national practices of the CIS countries so that region-specific features can be accounted for in the international recommendations for future censuses.

Материалы Всесоюзной переписи населения 1959 г. как источник по истории городской семьи

Using census materials for studying social history of Russia in the 20th century has serious restrictions determined by the census form and by selective publication of the obtained results. Using census forms themselves, fragmentary preserved in local archives, partially solves this problem. The researcher has to turn to the census materials for studying some topics, which are not directly reflected in the census forms, due to limited social statistics on the Soviet society. The article is to clarify the possibility of using primary materials of the 1959 census, stored in the fond of the Regional Statistical Office from the State Archive of the Sverdlovsk Region, alongside with the published data, for studying urban family in Sverdlovsk. The study of the Russian urban family in the second half of the 20th century is important for assessing the consequences of demographic transition of the 1930s – 1980s and the degree of population structure deformation following the Great Patriotic War. Studying the Ural family is significant, as urbanization processes in the region during the said period proceeded extremely intensively. To systematize the information on the census forms, a database “Family of the city of Sverdlovsk, 1959” has been created, combining principles of individual and family registration. The database includes information from 1,200 forms for the Oktyabrsky district. Nearly 17 000 apartment census forms for other urban settlements of the region fall outside the scope of this analysis. Comparison with published data proves that the sample is representative in its most significant indicators. Significant deviations are recorded in the social composition of the population, reflecting specifics of a central district of a large city (dominance of employees, significant number of single-parent families, presumably recent migrants). Among other things, it has been established that most commonly families consisted of two and three persons; in a significant number of cases, the households were headed by young women. The obtained information permits to characterize the Sverdlovsk urban family in terms of the so-called second demographic transition, which significantly influenced family size, distribution of intra-familial roles, and strategies of matrimonial behavior. Given the undoubted scientific value of the primary census materials, discovery of other similar documentary complexes in the Russian archives should be an important direction of research.

ОСОБЕННОСТИ ДЕМОГРАФИЧЕСКОГО РАЗВИТИЯ ЕКАТЕРИНБУРГА В КОНЦЕ XIX — НАЧАЛЕ XXI В.

The article analyzes the demographic dynamics of Ekaterinburg — Sverdlovsk based on the population censuses. As an additional source for the 1959 census, not only official results were used, but also a database compiled on the basis of census forms preserved in the archive. Changes in the sex and age structure of the population, as well as in the national composition, were studied. Particular attention is paid to the characterization of the features of family-marital behavior and related processes: nuptiality, fertility, and divorcement. Based on the analysis of time series, the main stages of the demographic transition were clarified, and their specificity was characterized. A feature of the demographic transition of Ekaterinburg — Sverdlovsk was an extended initial stage, which took a total of about 100 years; the rapid turning point of the second stage (1940–1950s), associated with the establishing of the model of simple reproduction; and a long third stage (1960–2010s), when the main trend associated with the aging of the population is smoothed out due to the influx of migrants from labor-surplus regions. The role of external migration in maintaining the high growth rates of the city’s population should be emphasized. Among the factors that determined the demographic processes, we also considered the administrative resource, which contributed to the development of the city’s economy and formed a demand for population growth.

The results of the 1939 Soviet census: two problems of adequacy

The article examines the adequacy of contemporary estimates of the total population of the Soviet Union based on the 1939 census. To do so, it analyzes the instructions for filling in the census form. Comparison of the better worded 1959 census instructions with the poorly worded instructions of the 1939 census shows that the latter created possibilities for double counting of the population. These findings confirm the validity of the lowest estimate of the total population of the USSR based on the 1939 census, given by the famous Russian demographer Andrei G. Volkov, which stood at only 167.6 million people. The impact of the inter-republic reallocation of prisoners’ census forms was also estimated. For the entire population of Russia these estimates do not, for most indicators, change the picture previously known from the official census results. On the other hand, for Ukraine and especially Kazakhstan, the recalculations produced noticeable changes, in some cases resulting in significant corrections of the composition of the pre-war population.

Features of Day-Long Statistic Campaigns in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century (Based on the Materials of Western Siberia and the Steppe Territory)

Based on archival material and published documents, the article identifies the features of day-long censuses in the territorial borders of Western Siberia and (the Steppe territory in the late 19th — early 20th centuries).
 Taking into account regional specifics, a comprehensive analysis was made for individual census campaigns in such cities as Tomsk, Omsk, and Semipalatinsk. Their features have been considered in the development of the statistic forms, the organization of the counters, working mechanisms.
 The first complete processing of the received material was the day-long census of Omsk, conducted in 1877. A systematic, methodologically developed statistic campaign, taking into account the achievements of the theory and practice of statistical science, was the daylong census of Tomsk in 1880. In administrative terms, the provincial statistic Committee played a significant role in this event. Based on the sources, it was revealed that the day-long campaign of Semipalatinsk in 1882 received broad public involvement in the implementation of statistical works under the control of the regional statistic Committee. It is shown in a comprehensive manner that the designated measures had disadvantages, which were manifested in the organizational and technical part. There was little explanation of the census tasks among the population, and the census staff was not always ready for the upcoming work, many forms in the census forms were not understood by the enumerators, they did not know what to do.

Ronald L. Mize, Latina/o Studies

Reviewed by: Latina/o Studies by Ronald L. Mize Kane Ferguson (bio) Ronald L. Mize, Latina/o Studies. Polity Press, 2019. Pp. 172. Part of the Short Introductions Series by Polity Press, Ronald Mize’s Latina/o Studies casts the field’s current debates against a historical accounting of its development. This monograph serves as a comprehensive guide to both students and scholars who are interested in the growth of the discipline, as well as the historical foundations that inform ongoing debates. As it is significantly easier for individuals to remain connected to a homeland in the “post-1965 migration” (8) era, a major theme of this text is transnationalism and its relationship with neoliberalism, nativism, and globalization. Divided into eight chapters, the work traces the veins of Latina/o studies from several perspectives. Chapter 1 concentrates on terminology, beginning with government deployment of the term “Hispanic” on census forms in the 1970s to the emergence of “Latino” as a shortened version of “Latinoamericano.” During the 1990s, concern over the term’s visible masculinity was voiced, and more inclusive language such as Latin@ (2000s), Latinx (2010s), and most recently, Latinidad(es), has since emerged. Through a discussion of national origin and lived experiences, Mize confronts (im)migration and transnationalism and complicates conceptualizations of a panethnic Latina/o identity. Chapter 2 chronicles the trajectory of US and Latin American history, focusing on the legacy of Spanish colonialism and US imperialism that continues to inform Latina/o studies research and scholars. This includes the US-Mexico War, the Spanish American War, and US political and military involvement in Latin American nations (Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Guatemala), as well as revolutionary and proindependence figures. Similarly, the chapter describes historical immigration patterns to, and destinations within, the US and traces US political movements such as the Chicano and Boricua civil rights movements (1960s and 1970s), the sanctuary movements (1980s), and the immigrant rights movements (2000s). In chapters 3 and 4, Mize pushes back on scholarship that overrepresents Mexican American culture and thought by unpacking the complexity of Latina/o studies through a detailed account of the preceding area studies. Specifically, chapter 3 concentrates on the simultaneous but separate inauguration of Chicano studies in the Southwest and Puerto Rican studies in the Northeast, which arose amid the civil rights movement as well as in response to earlier scholarship that relied upon and perpetuated stereotypes of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans. The focus of chapter 4 broadens to illustrate the “plurality of Latina/o and Latin American experiences” (59). It introduces the rise of other Latina/o area studies such as Central American studies, Cuban American studies, Dominican studies, and South American studies through theorizations of a Latino political consciousness (59). However, Mize is quick to clarify that Latina/o studies is [End Page 205] “more than simply an amalgamation of disparate national-origin groups” (59). In many ways unique to the US, there are “places where Latina/os come together in their daily lived experiences” (59), which the field of Latina/o studies now conceptualizes “as embodying Latinidades” (59). In a similar way, chapter 5 engages Latina subject positions to illustrate the expansion of identity through conceptualizations of gender and sexuality. Mize outlines scholarship aimed at “reclaiming the lost voices of Latinas” (62) in historical contexts such as representations of Doña María/La Malintzin/La Malinche and other writings that “inform our understanding of life filtered through Latina eyes” (64). In chapter 6, Mize returns to the present to concentrate on popular culture and the representation of Latina/os therein. Mize demonstrates the “conflation” (76) of Latina/o identities and stereotypical representation of Latina/o subjects in all forms of popular media as well as an imagined homogenized market segment. He then counters with an outline of the heterogenous responses put forth by Latina/o studies scholars. This chapter further explicates the political threat posed by representations like the “Latino threat narrative” (77) emerging from Donald Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign and administration. Mize illustrates how state legislation is a “main expression of today’s nativism” (79), positing that “Latina/o Studies scholars have to recognize that in many ways our celebration...

Итоги переписи населения СССР 1939 г.: две проблемы адекватности

С целью анализа адекватности существующих оценок общей численности населения СССР по данным переписи 1939 г. рассмотрены положения инструкции к заполнению переписного листа этой переписи. Их сравнение с более совершенной инструкцией к переписи 1959 г. показало, что инструкция 1939 г. создавала возможность двойного счета населения. Это подтверждает правомерность наиболее низкой оценки численности населения СССР, данной известным российским демографом А.Г. Волковым на основе материалов переписи 1939 г. – 167,6 млн человек. Рассчитаны и проанализированы количественные оценки влияния межреспубликанского перераспределения переписных листов заключенных при разработке итогов переписи 1939 г. Для всего населения России по большинству показателей эти оценки не меняют картины, известной прежде по официальным итогам этой переписи. Напротив, для Украины и особенно для Казахстана пересчеты дали заметные изменения, которые в некоторых случаях существенно уточняют представление о составе их довоенного населения.

Settler‐State Borders and the Question of Indigenous Immigrant Identity

AbstractIndigenous migration from Latin America to the United States has been on the rise over the past decades. There has also been an increase in Indigenous self‐identification amongst people in the United States who previously self‐identified as Hispanic or Latina/o on census forms. Though Latin American Indigenous migration to the United States has been steadily on the rise since the 1990s, there remains a lack of resources—philosophical, political, and bureaucratic—to account for this migrant group. My goal in this article is to explore in greater depth why Latin American Indigenous migration is hermeneutically marginalised. First, I argue that we problematically fail to understand settler‐state borders—particularly the Mexico‐US border—as, in part, Indigenous spaces. Second, and relatedly, I argue that our failure to understand borders as Indigenous spaces is connected to the widespread, inaccurate presumption that Indigenous peoples ‘lose their authenticity’ (and, in turn, their very Indigenous identities) upon crossing settler‐state borders. Contrary to what I describe as the dominant view of borders as de‐Indigenised or non‐Indigenous spaces, I argue in that many settler‐state borders are spaces where Indigenous peoples, including Indigenous migrants, may experience their Indigenous identities intimately, and even publicly articulate and defend them. Importantly, this does not mean that settler‐state borders do not also harm Indigenous peoples by threating Indigenous sovereignty. I end by arguing that addressing the hermeneutical marginalisation of Latin American Indigenous migration requires a rigorous reconceptualisation of borders themselves as Indigenous spaces.

The Border, the Laggan and the Professor

The physical boundary (‘the border’) between Northern Ireland and the rest of Ireland has featured as a crucial part in relationships across the island, not least in the negotiations between the UK and the EU over Brexit. 
 Under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921, a Boundary Commission was established with Professor Eoin MacNeill as the representative of the Irish Free State. It started its work after the civil war in the Irish Free State (1922-23) had ceased. It almost achieved its objective of a revised border. 
 With the agreement of all sides, the major source of data was religion in the 1911 Census, but individual returns were not made available to the Commission. The areas agreed for transfer involved large majorities of Catholics to the Free State and large majorities of Protestants to the North. The only exception was the Laggan in northeast Donegal, an area with a small Protestant majority. 
 At the last moment MacNeill withdrew, the Commission could not produce a unanimous report, therefore its report was unenforceable and it remained secret for over 40 years. The 1911 Census forms became available in the new millennium permitting detailed examination of the Laggan. 
 This paper addresses the outcomes of the Commission’s work and questions whether there was a particular problem which caused MacNeill to withdraw. Speculation on MacNeill’s activity in this exercise is offered and related to his official reasons for sinking the Commission.

Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи 1897 г.: обзор нормативных документов

В статье представлена характеристика нормативных актов, регламентирующих организацию и проведение Первой всеобщей переписи населения Российской империи 1897 г. Источниковой базой исследования послужили нормативные документы (положение, инструкции, правила, циркуляры, циркулярные письма), выявленные в федеральных и региональных архивах и библиотеках России. Дана характеристика состава и содержания нормативных документов.
 Основными документами, регулирующими организацию и проведение переписи 1897 г., были: Положение 1895 г.; инструкции губернаторам; инструкции комиссиям; наставления счетчикам; правила заполнения переписных форм. Установлено, что с 1895 по 1897 г. было создано более 90 нормативных документов, как определяющих общий порядок проведения переписи, так и регулирующих частные вопросы. Особое внимание акцентировано на изучении документов, регламентирующих отступления от общего порядка переписи 1897 г. Такие документы создавались по инициативе Главной переписной комиссии или переписных комиссий в регионах. Представлены примеры отступления от общего порядка переписи населения с указанием на соответствующие нормативные документы. В результате исследования делается вывод о том, что в период подготовки и непосредственно во время проведения Первой всеобщей переписи населения был разработан обширный комплекс документов, регулирующих как общие вопросы организации переписи, так и частные моменты (отступления от установленного в нормативных документах 1895 г. порядка переписи).

HISTORICAL ELECTRONIC RESOURCES FOR STUDYING THE SOCIAL TOPOGRAPHY OF SIBERIAN CITIES AT THE END OF XIX — THE BEGINNINGS XX CENTURIES (SPECIAL ASPECTS OF THE CREATION AND THE USE)

Creating historical Internet resources, databases and informational systems, which are available to a wide user community in on-line mode, is one of the relevant directions of modern historical research. The use of spatial analysis to study the social topography of Siberian cities at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries based on the geographic information system created on the NextGISWeb platform is especially relevant due to the contemplation of creating an information system, containing a various body of data, which are presented as an open user resource with the use of a Web-GIS platform and availabled to a wide circle of researchers. The main source of this study are one of the most complete and representative collections of census forms of the Tobolsk Governorate cities, kept in the State Archives of Tobolsk city, the Tyumen Region (GATO). The types and structure of the census forms formed the basis of the created database, which has an analogous structure with the census forms. Working with maps and city plans, which act as sources for creating a base map and include not only digitizing the source map, but also attracting additional materials containing a description of the infrastructure and urban areas, which involves a broad analytical effort, which is not transfer of information from historical maps to the digital environment, but reconstruction of urban space. The integrated approach and the use of all possible sources allow to achieve the maximum possible effect of the reconstructed space of the urban environment.

The Unmet Need for Psychotropic Medication within the Migrant Population of Northern Ireland - A Record Linkage Study

BackgroundA large proportion of people with mental ill-health do not receive the care that they require - constituting unmet need. Migrant populations are particularly at risk of not receiving necessary care for a range of reasons including perceptual differences and multiple barriers to health service.
 Main AimThis record linkage study compares the likelihood of people with poor mental health receiving psychotropic medication between migrant and settled communities and amongst different migrant groups in Northern Ireland.
 MethodsA cohort of 78,267 people aged 16-64 who reported chronic poor mental health in the 2011 Census records was generated and followed for the next 12 months by linkage to a centralised prescribing dataset to determine rates of treatment. All individual and household attributes were derived from Census forms. Absence of a psychotropic medication prescription from the beginning of 2011 represented unmet need. Logistic regression analyses quantified the relationship between psychotropic medication and migrant status, while accounting for relevant demographic and socio-economic factors.
 ResultsOverall, 86% of the settled population with chronic poor mental health received at least one psychotropic medication during the study period, compared to 67% of the equivalent population of 1,736 migrants. Although migrants were 61% less likely than the settled community to report poor mental health (OR 0.39 (95% CI 0.37 - 0.41)), those reporting poor mental health were less than one-third as likely as to be on psychotropic medication in fully adjusted models. There also existed considerable variation between individual migrant groups, with uptake of medication lowest amongst the Lithuanian migrant group (OR 0.09 (95% CI 0.05 – 0.14)), and highest amongst German migrant group (OR 1.30 (95% CI 0.87 – 1.94)).
 ConclusionAlthough this study suggests substantial unmet need for treatment of poor mental health amongst the migrant population of Northern Ireland this may not represent the whole story. Differences between individual migrant groups suggest that other factors may also be at play including differing approaches to treatment, or alternative routes to treatment. The implications of the study will be discussed in the paper.

Фотодокументы конца XIX — начала XX в. как источник для реконструкции социальной топографии городов Тобольской губернии

Основной целью работы является исследование фотодокументов в контексте их значимости в качестве исторического источника для визуализации пространства городов Тобольской губернии конца XIX — начала XX в. В качестве источников привлекаются фотодокументы на всех видах носителей, хранящиеся в архивах, музеях, а также фотооткрытки с видами городов, которые массово издавались с 1895 г. Современная историография вопроса включает работы краеведческого характера, в которых обобщен внушительный массив фотодокументов, к сожалению, не всегда сопровождающийся поисковыми данными. Анализ выявленных фотодокументов позволяет выделить несколько наиболее популярных сюжетов городского пейзажа и провести сопоставление количественных характеристик имеющихся источников. Были выявлены фотографы и владельцы фотоателье, являвшиеся авторами снимков и занимавшиеся тиражированием открыток в каждом городе Тобольской губернии, в том числе фотографы — авторы фотоснимков сразу нескольких городов губернии. Данные переписных листов Первой всероссийской переписи населения 1897 г. позволяют определить места постоянного проживания конкретных фотографов и адреса их ателье, наличие наемных фотографов и учеников свидетельствует о том, насколько успешным был этот бизнес. Данные о количестве фотодокументов, характеризующих тот или другой город, и разнообразие сюжетов позволяют нам сделать выводы о существующем спросе на фотографии городских пейзажей, поскольку подавляющее большинство авторов этих снимков были профессионалами и получали от этой деятельности основной доход. Большое разнообразие фотодокументов позволяет уверено использовать содержащуюся в них визуальную информацию для реконструкции пространства городской среды.

Возможности изучения миграций населения сибирских городов по материалам переписи 1897 г. (на примере города Ишима)

The research is aimed at studying of the geographical, social, economic and topographical features of migration processes in Siberian cities on the basis of the first all-Russian census of 1897 primary materials on the example of Ishim. The analysis of questionnaires, instructions for enumerators and review of publications on the analysis of the results of the population census in terms of assessing the task of accounting for all population’s categories are presented. The possibilities of accounting for permanent and temporary migrations on the basis of the data contained in the census forms and published results of the population census are indicated. The statistical data concerning the characteristics of Ishim city’s population (Tobolsk province) from the published results of the first all-Russian population census and census sheets are presented. Material is based on the source-oriented database including the census sheets stored in the State Archive in Tobolsk city. Some geographical and economic features of temporary migrations of Ishim city population are revealed.

Census Enumeration and Group Conflict

Does the enumeration of ethnic, racial, and/or religious categories on national household censuses increase the likelihood of conflict? The authors propose a theory of intergroup relations that emphasizes the conflictual effects of institutionalizing boundaries between social identity groups. The article investigates the relationship between counting and various forms of conflict with an original, global data set that classifies the type of enumeration used in more than one thousand census questionnaires in more than 150 countries spanning more than two centuries. Through a series of cross-national statistical analyses, the authors find a robust association between enumeration of ethnic cleavages on the census and various forms of competition and conflict, including violent ethnic civil war. The plausibility of the theory is further demonstrated through case study analysis of religious conflict in India.

False papers and family fictions: household responses to ‘gift children’ born to Indonesian women during transnational migration

When parents pursue transnational labour migration, challenges arise around ensuring the social belonging of children, especially ‘gift children’ who are conceived or born abroad as a result of out-of-wedlock relationships or sexual assault. Families we interviewed in Lombok, Indonesia, displayed complex social ingenuity to ensure the gift child’s social belonging. Caregivers described how they address discrimination by manipulating and falsifying family histories in identity documents, including census forms and birth registration. These family strategies drive home the local role of identity documents as a tool to enhance belonging rather than as proof of legal identity. We spotlight the time lag between birth and obtaining an official birth record as a crucial space in creating ‘citizenship from below’ in communities with high out-migration and low birth registration rates.