Cellular Cholesterol Transport Research Articles

MiR-4646-5p Acts as a Tumor-Suppressive Factor in Triple Negative Breast Cancer and Targets the Cholesterol Transport Protein GRAMD1B.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are crucial post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression, and their deregulation contributes to many aspects of cancer development and progression. Thus, miRNAs provide insight into oncogenic mechanisms and represent promising targets for new therapeutic approaches. A type of cancer that is still in urgent need of improved treatment options is triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Therefore, we aimed to characterize a novel miRNA with a potential role in TNBC. Based on a previous study, we selected miR-4646-5p, a miRNA with a still unknown function in breast cancer. We discovered that higher expression of miR-4646-5p in TNBC patients is associated with better survival. In vitro assays showed that miR-4646-5p overexpression reduces growth, proliferation, and migration of TNBC cell lines, whereas inhibition had the opposite effect. Furthermore, we found that miR-4646-5p inhibits the tube formation ability of endothelial cells, which may indicate anti-angiogenic properties. By whole transcriptome analysis, we not only observed that miR-4646-5p downregulates many oncogenic factors, like tumor-promoting cytokines and migration- and invasion-related genes, but were also able to identify a direct target, the GRAM domain-containing protein 1B (GRAMD1B). GRAMD1B is involved in cellular cholesterol transport and its knockdown phenocopied the growth-reducing effects of miR-4646-5p. We thus conclude that GRAMD1B may partly contribute to the diverse tumor-suppressive effects of miR-4646-5p in TNBC.

Interleukin-23 receptor signaling impairs the stability and function of colonic regulatory Tcells.

The cytokine interleukin-23 (IL-23) is involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). IL23R is enriched in intestinal Tregs, yet whether IL-23 modulates intestinal Tregs remains unknown. Here, investigating IL-23R signaling in Tregs specifically, we show that colonic Tregs highly express Il23r compared with Tregs from other compartments and their frequency is reduced upon IL-23 administration and impairs Treg suppressive function. Similarly, colonic Treg frequency is increased in mice lacking Il23r specifically in Tregs and exhibits a competitive advantage over IL-23R-sufficient Tregs during inflammation. Finally, IL-23 antagonizes liver X receptor pathway, cellular cholesterol transporter Abca1, and increases Treg apoptosis. Our results show that IL-23R signaling regulates intestinal Tregs by increasing cell turnover, antagonizing suppression, and decreasing cholesterol efflux. These results suggest that IL-23 negatively regulates Tregs in the intestine with potential implications for promoting chronic inflammation in patients with IBD.

214-OR: Effects of Polyphenols on Cholesterol Efflux and Insulin Secretion in MIN6 Cells

Background: Diabetic dyslipidemia is characterized by elevated levels of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and reduced levels of HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) . Low levels of HDL-C are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, because HDL protects against atherosclerosis through multiple mechanisms include removal of excess cholesterol from macrophages. HDL can also influence cholesterol homeostasis in pancreatic β-cell. It is noteworthy that absence of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) , which is a cellular cholesterol transporter and regulates islet cholesterol efflux, results in islet cholesterol overload and impaired insulin release in mice. We examined the associations of cholesterol efflux and insulin secretion in MIN6 cells with polyphenols that is reported to increase cholesterol efflux. Methods: Murine MIN6 cells were labeled with 3H-cholesterol and incubated with ApoA1 (μg/ml) or HDL (25 μg/ml) for 24 hours. The percentage cholesterol efflux was calculated by dividing the media-derived radioactivity by the sum of the radioactivity in the media and the cells. The effect of polyphenols on the cholesterol efflux was studied, adding that into the medium before the analysis of the cholesterol efflux. Insulin secretion was assessed by ELISA as the concentration of insulin in the culture medium. The mRNA expression of ABCA1 and ABCG1 were determined by real-time Quantitative RT-PCR. Results: Under the existence of polyphenols (isorhamnetin) , the ApoA1 or HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux had significantly increased by 1.4% or 1.8%, respectively (n=4, p<0.01) . Isorhamnetin had increased insulin secretion by 882 ng/mg protein/h (n=3, p<0.05) and significantly decreased ABCA1 and ABCG1 expressions. Conclusion: These data suggest that isorhamnetin increases cholesterol efflux and insulin secretion in MIN6 cells. Isorhamnetin could be the interesting candidate to investigate the new treatment for patients with diabetes mellitus. Disclosure K.Matsuki: None. Y.Kimura: None. K.Matsumura: None. J.Tanabe: None. H.Murakami: None. M.Daimon: None. Funding JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 20K11549

ABCA1, ABCG1, and Cholesterol Homeostasis.

Cholesterol is a major component of mammalian cell membranes and plays important structural and functional roles. However, excessive cholesterol accumulation is toxic to cells and constitutes the molecular basis for many diseases, especially atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Thus, cellular cholesterol is tightly regulated to maintain a homeostasis. Reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) is thought to be one primary pathway to eliminate excessive cholesterol from the body. The first and rate-limiting step of RCT is ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transports A1 (ABCA1)- and ABCG1-dependent cholesterol efflux. In the process, ABCA1 mediates initial transport of cellular cholesterol to apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) for forming nascent high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles, and ABCG1 facilitates subsequent continued cholesterol efflux to HDL for further maturation. In this chapter, we summarize the roles of ABCA1 and ABCG1 in maintaining cellular cholesterol homoeostasis and discuss the underlying mechanisms by which they mediate cholesterol export.

The Promise of Apolipoprotein AI-Based Therapy

Apolipoprotein A-I (ApoAI) is an anti-atherosclerotic protein that promotes cholesterol efflux from tissues to the liver for excretion [1]. ApoAI is the main structural and functional protein of High- Density Lipoproteins (HDL), representing ~70% of total HDL proteins [2,3]. Circulating apoAI protein is an amphipathic protein (28kDa) comprising eight alpha-helical domains of 22 amino acids and two repeats of 11 amino acids [4]. Consequently, ApoAI binds avidly to lipids and readily moves between lipoprotein particles; however, ~5-10% of human plasma ApoAI exists in a free state (lipoprotein-unbound) [5]. ApoAI protein is more than a structural scaffold that maintains lipid packaging, as it plays an important role in the transport of cellular cholesterol from the artery wall to the liver for catabolism [6-8]. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties were also attributed to apoAI [9,10]. In addition, a protective role of apoAI against cancer was proposed [11]. ApoAI is synthesized mainly in the liver and small intestine and there are a lot of regulatory elements and transcription factors that control apoAI gene expression, as reviewed in [12]. Treatment with BPA (bisphenol A), one of the most widespread environmental chemicals, downregulates ApoAI gene expression, aggravating the atherosclerotic plaques in LDLR-/- mice [13]. Interestingly, the ratio of HDL-cholesterol to apoAI protein levels is an indicator of the risk of the cardiovascular disorder [14]. Lack of ApoAI augmented atherosclerosis in various hypercholesterolemic mice, such as mice expressing human apoB or ApoAI-/-/LDLR-/- mice [15,16]. In humans, familial ApoAI deficiency is associated with premature coronary heart disease [17]. Interestingly, low levels of apoAI and atherogenic dyslipidemia were found in obese individuals, but increases in apoAI levels and enhancements of cholesterol efflux capacity of HDL were reported at three months after bariatric surgery [18]. Considering the anti-atherogenic properties of apoAI, various apoAI-based therapies were proposed for reduction of atherogenesis: i) overexpression of ApoAI, ii) infusions of ApoAI protein, ApoAI mimetic peptides, or ApoAI-containing HDL [19-21], iii) oral small molecules that stimulate ApoAI production [22]. Overexpression of ApoAI reduced atherogenesis in apoE-/- or LDLR-/- atherosclerotic mice [23-31]. Infusions of ApoAI mimetic peptides led to the regression of aortic valve stenosis in rabbits [32]. Liver-directed adenoviral gene transfer of ApoAI resulted in the regression of preexisting atheroma in LDLR-/- mice [33]. Undoubtedly, local delivery of apoAI protein to the vascular wall represents a more efficient apoAIbased therapy than its systemic delivery. Remarkably, transduction of vascular endothelial cells with ApoAI expressing adenovirus reduced inflammation and protected against atherosclerosis in hyperlipidemic rabbits [34,35]. The oral drug RVX-208 significantly increased apoAI production in monkeys but presented disappointing efficacy in a phase II trial [36]. Notwithstanding there are good results obtained in studies using animal models, several apoAI-based clinical trials failed to regress atherosclerotic plaques in humans [37,38]. Despite tremendous advances regarding the understanding of apoAI, the promise of apoAI-based therapy awaits new studies and trials.

Reverse Cholesterol Transport Dysfunction Is a Feature of Familial Hypercholesterolemia.

We seek to establish whether high-density lipoprotein HDL metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) impairment is an intrinsic feature of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). RCT from macrophages (m-RCT), a vascular cell type of major influence on atherosclerosis, is impaired in FH due to defective low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) function via both the HDL- and LDL-mediated pathways. Potential mechanisms include impaired HDL metabolism, which is linked to increased LDL levels, as well as the increased transport of cellular unesterified cholesterol to LDL, which presents a defective catabolism. RCT dysfunction is consistently associated with mutation-positive FH linked to decreased HDL levels as well as impaired HDL remodeling and LDLR function. It remains to be explored whether these alterations are also present in less well-characterized forms of FH, such as cases with no identified mutations, and whether they are fully corrected by current standard treatments.

Effects of phytochemicals on macrophage cholesterol efflux capacity: Impact on atherosclerosis

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) is the major promoter of reverse cholesterol transport and efflux of excess cellular cholesterol. The functions of HDL, such as cholesterol efflux, are associated with cardiovascular disease rather than HDL levels. We have reviewed the evidence base on the major classes of phytochemicals, including polyphenols, alkaloids, carotenoids, phytosterols, and fatty acids, and their effects on macrophage cholesterol efflux and its major pathways. Phytochemicals show the potential to improve the efficiency of each of these pathways. The findings are mainly in preclinical studies, and more clinical research is warranted in this area to develop novel clinical applications.

Ostreolysin A and anthrolysin O use different mechanisms to control movement of cholesterol from the plasma membrane to the endoplasmic reticulum

Recent studies using two cholesterol-binding bacterial toxin proteins, perfringolysin O (PFO) and domain 4 of anthrolysin O (ALOD4), have shown that cholesterol in the plasma membranes (PMs) of animal cells resides in three distinct pools. The first pool comprises mobile cholesterol, accessible to both PFO and ALOD4, that is rapidly transported to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to signal cholesterol excess and maintain cholesterol homeostasis. The second is a sphingomyelin (SM)-sequestered pool inaccessible to PFO and ALOD4 but that becomes accessible by treatment with SM-degrading sphingomyelinase (SMase). The third is an essential pool also inaccessible to PFO and ALOD4 that cannot be liberated by SMase treatment. The accessible cholesterol pool can be trapped on PMs of live cells by nonlytic ALOD4, blocking its transport to the ER. However, studies of the two other pools have been hampered by a lack of available tools. Here, we used ostreolysin A (OlyA), which specifically binds SM/cholesterol complexes in membranes, to study the SM-sequestered cholesterol pool. Binding of nonlytic OlyA to SM/cholesterol complexes in PMs of live cells depleted the accessible PM cholesterol pool detectable by ALOD4. Consequently, transport of accessible cholesterol from PM to ER ceased, thereby activating SREBP transcription factors and increasing cholesterol synthesis. Thus, OlyA and ALOD4 both control movement of PM cholesterol, but through different lipid-binding mechanisms. We also found that PM-bound OlyA was rapidly internalized into cells, whereas PM-bound ALOD4 remained on the cell surface. Our findings establish OlyA and ALOD4 as complementary tools to investigate cellular cholesterol transport.

Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) counters osteoarthritis by regulating intracellular cholesterol levels and membrane fluidity of degenerated chondrocytes.

Cholesterol and lipid metabolism are associated with osteoarthritis (OA) in human cartilage. High cholesterol levels in OA chondrocytes leads to decreased membrane fluidity and blocks the signaling cascade associated with the expression of chondrogenic genes. It is known that bile acid plays a role in regulating cholesterol homeostasis and the digestion of fats in the human body. Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), as a member of the bile acid family, also aids in the transport of cellular cholesterol. In this study, we hypothesized that TUDCA might be able to promote the restoration of OA cartilage by reducing membrane cholesterol levels in OA chondrocytes and by stimulating the chondrogenic signaling cascade. To assess this hypothesis, we investigated the effects of TUDCA on degenerated chondrocytes isolated from patients with OA. Importantly, treatment with TUDCA at sub-micellar concentrations (2500 μM) significantly increased cell proliferation and Cyclin D1 expression compared with the controls. In addition, the expression of chondrogenic marker genes (SOX9, COL2, and ACAN), proteins (SOX9 and COL2), and glycosaminoglycan (Chondroitin sulfate) was much higher in the TUDCA-treated group compared to the controls. We also found that TUDCA treatment significantly reduced the intracellular cholesterol levels in the chondrocytes and increased membrane fluidity. Furthermore, the stability of TGF receptor 1 and activity of focal adhesion proteins were also increased following TUDCA treatment. Together, these results demonstrated that TUDCA could be used as an alternative treatment for the restoration of OA cartilage.

Apoprotein E and Reverse Cholesterol Transport.

Apoprotein E (apoE) is a multifunctional protein. Its best-characterized function is as a ligand for low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor family members to mediate the clearance of apoB-containing atherogenic lipoproteins. Among its other functions, apoE is involved in cholesterol efflux, especially from cholesterol-loaded macrophage foam cells and other atherosclerosis-relevant cells, and in reverse cholesterol transport. Reverse cholesterol transport is a mechanism by which excess cellular cholesterol is transported via lipoproteins in the plasma to the liver where it can be excreted from the body in the feces. This process is thought to have a role in the attenuation of atherosclerosis. This review summarizes studies on the role of apoE in cellular cholesterol efflux and reverse cholesterol transport and discusses the identification of apoE mimetic peptides that may promote these pathways.

Modelling interaction between HIV-1 Nef and calnexin.

HIV-associated atherosclerosis is a major comorbidity due, in part, to systemic effects of the virus on cholesterol metabolism. HIV protein Nef plays an important role in this pathology by impairing maturation of the main cellular cholesterol transporter ATP-Binding Cassette (ABCA) 1. ABCA1 maturation critically depends on calnexin, an integral endoplasmic reticulum membrane chaperone, and Nef binds to the cytoplasmic domain of calnexin and impairs interaction of calnexin with ABCA1. Overarching goal of the present study was to model Nef-calnexin interaction interface, and identify small molecule compounds potentially inhibiting this interaction. Molecular dynamics was utilized to build structure model of calnexin cytoplasmic domain, followed by global docking combined with application of QASDOM software developed by us for efficient analysis of receptor-ligand complexes. Structure-based virtual screening was performed for all sites identified by docking. A soluble analogue of a compound from the screening results list was tested for ability to down-regulate ABCA1. We identified major interaction sites in calnexin and reciprocal sites in Nef. Virtual screening yielded a number of small-molecule compounds potentially blocking a calnexin site. Interestingly, one of the compounds, NSC13987, was previously identified by us as an inhibitor targeting a Nef site. An analogue of NSC13987, AMS-55, potently reversed the negative effect of Nef on ABCA1 abundance. We have modelled Nef-calnexin interaction, predicted small molecule compounds that can potentially inhibit this interaction, and experimentally tested one of these compounds, confirming its effectiveness. These findings provide a platform for searching for new therapeutic agents to treat HIV-associated comorbidities.

Contribution of cholesterol-binding motifs in ABCA1, ABCG1 and SR-B1 structure to cellular cholesterol transport

Aim: ABCA1, ABCG1 transporters and SR-B1 receptor are the major proteins involved in cholesterol efflux from cells.

Model of OSBP-Mediated Cholesterol Supply to Aichi Virus RNA Replication Sites Involving Protein-Protein Interactions among Viral Proteins, ACBD3, OSBP, VAP-A/B, and SAC1.

Positive-strand RNA viruses, including picornaviruses, utilize cellular machinery for genome replication. Previously, we reported that each of the 2B, 2BC, 2C, 3A, and 3AB proteins of Aichi virus (AiV), a picornavirus, forms a complex with the Golgi apparatus protein ACBD3 and phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIIβ (PI4KB) at viral RNA replication sites (replication organelles [ROs]), enhancing PI4KB-dependent phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) production. Here, we demonstrate AiV hijacking of the cellular cholesterol transport system involving oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP), a PI4P-binding cholesterol transfer protein. AiV RNA replication was inhibited by silencing cellular proteins known to be components of this pathway, OSBP, the ER membrane proteins VAPA and VAPB (VAP-A/B), the PI4P-phosphatase SAC1, and PI-transfer protein β. OSBP, VAP-A/B, and SAC1 were present at RNA replication sites. We also found various previously unknown interactions among the AiV proteins (2B, 2BC, 2C, 3A, and 3AB), ACBD3, OSBP, VAP-A/B, and SAC1, and the interactions were suggested to be involved in recruiting the component proteins to AiV ROs. Importantly, the OSBP-2B interaction enabled PI4P-independent recruitment of OSBP to AiV ROs, indicating preferential recruitment of OSBP among PI4P-binding proteins. Protein-protein interaction-based OSBP recruitment has not been reported for other picornaviruses. Cholesterol was accumulated at AiV ROs, and inhibition of OSBP-mediated cholesterol transfer impaired cholesterol accumulation and AiV RNA replication. Electron microscopy showed that AiV-induced vesicle-like structures were close to ER membranes. Altogether, we conclude that AiV directly recruits the cholesterol transport machinery through protein-protein interactions, resulting in formation of membrane contact sites between the ER and AiV ROs and cholesterol supply to the ROs.IMPORTANCE Positive-strand RNA viruses utilize host pathways to modulate the lipid composition of viral RNA replication sites for replication. Previously, we demonstrated that Aichi virus (AiV), a picornavirus, forms a complex comprising certain proteins of AiV, the Golgi apparatus protein ACBD3, and the lipid kinase PI4KB to synthesize PI4P lipid at the sites for AiV RNA replication. Here, we confirmed cholesterol accumulation at the AiV RNA replication sites, which are established by hijacking the host cholesterol transfer machinery mediated by a PI4P-binding cholesterol transfer protein, OSBP. We showed that the component proteins of the machinery, OSBP, VAP, SAC1, and PITPNB, are all essential host factors for AiV replication. Importantly, the machinery is directly recruited to the RNA replication sites through previously unknown interactions of VAP/OSBP/SAC1 with the AiV proteins and with ACBD3. Consequently, we propose a specific strategy employed by AiV to efficiently accumulate cholesterol at the RNA replication sites via protein-protein interactions.

High-Density Lipoprotein Function in Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes Mellitus.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the most common cause of death worldwide.1 Major CVD risk factors are hypertension, smoking, physical inactivity, abnormal glucose levels/diabetes mellitus, and dyslipidemia. Among these, dyslipidemia characterized by a low level of HDL-C (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) is strongly and inversely correlated with CVD risk,2–4 and low HDL-C levels is part of the atherogenic dyslipidemia complex associated with diabetes mellitus.5 These observations triggered intense interest in increasing HDL-C levels for therapeutic intervention of CVD.6,7 However, several recent lines of evidence now suggest that the association between HDL-C levels and CVD status may be indirect or more complicated than previously recognized.7 Thus, human genetic studies demonstrate that genetically altered HDL-C levels do not necessarily translate to an altered risk of CVD.8–12 Phase III clinical trials of drugs that elevate HDL-C, such as niacin and CETP (cholesteryl ester transfer protein) inhibitors, also have largely failed to reduce CVD events in statin-treated subjects with established CVD.13–15 For several CETP inhibitors, improvement in CVD prevention was unsuccessful because of off-target effects (torcetrapib) or lack of efficacy (dalcetrapib and evacetrapib).14,16–18 The exception is the recent REVEAL trial (Randomized Evaluation of the Effects of Anacetrapib Through Lipid-Modification), which included more subjects and was performed for longer than previous CETP inhibitor trials. The REVEAL demonstrated that the CETP inhibitor anacetrapib exhibited beneficial effects on cardiovascular outcomes on top of those of statin therapy, although the risk reduction was moderate19,20 and might have been due, at least in part, to a reduction in non-HDL-C rather than elevated HDL-C.21 Considering these cumulative observations, it remains uncertain whether increased HDL-C directly impacts atherosclerosis and the …

Chronic kidney disease alters lipid trafficking and inflammatory responses in macrophages: effects of liver X receptor agonism

BackgroundOur aim was to evaluate lipid trafficking and inflammatory response of macrophages exposed to lipoproteins from subjects with moderate to severe chronic kidney disease (CKD), and to investigate the potential benefits of activating cellular cholesterol transporters via liver X receptor (LXR) agonism.MethodsLDL and HDL were isolated by sequential density gradient ultracentrifugation of plasma from patients with stage 3–4 CKD and individuals without kidney disease (HDLCKD and HDLCont, respectively). Uptake of LDL, cholesterol efflux to HDL, and cellular inflammatory responses were assessed in human THP-1 cells. HDL effects on inflammatory markers (MCP-1, TNF-α, IL-1β), Toll-like receptors-2 (TLR-2) and − 4 (TLR-4), ATP-binding cassette class A transporter (ABCA1), NF-κB, extracellular signal regulated protein kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) were assessed by RT-PCR and western blot before and after in vitro treatment with an LXR agonist.ResultsThere was no difference in macrophage uptake of LDL isolated from CKD versus controls. By contrast, HDCKD was significantly less effective than HDLCont in accepting cholesterol from cholesterol-enriched macrophages (median 20.8% [IQR 16.1–23.7] vs control (26.5% [IQR 19.6–28.5]; p = 0.008). LXR agonist upregulated ABCA1 expression and increased cholesterol efflux to HDL of both normal and CKD subjects, although the latter continued to show lower efflux capacity. HDLCKD increased macrophage cytokine response (TNF-α, MCP-1, IL-1β, and NF-κB) versus HDLCont. The heightened cytokine response to HDLCKD was further amplified in cells treated with LXR agonist. The LXR-augmentation of inflammation was associated with increased TLR-2 and TLR-4 and ERK1/2.ConclusionsModerate to severe impairment in kidney function promotes foam cell formation that reflects impairment in cholesterol acceptor function of HDLCKD. Activation of cellular cholesterol transporters by LXR agonism improves but does not normalize efflux to HDLCKD. However, LXR agonism actually increases the pro-inflammatory effects of HDLCKD through activation of TLRs and ERK1/2 pathways.

Congenital disorders of lipoprotein metabolism

Congenital disorders of lipid metabolism are caused by awide range of variants of the genes for receptors, apolipoproteins, enzymes, transfer factors, and cellular cholesterol transporters. Clinically most relevant are autosomal dominant familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) and familial combined hyperlipoproteinemia (FCHL). FH has aprevalence of 1:250. It is due to mutations of the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, less often to mutations of the apolipoprotein B (APOB), the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type9 (PCSK9), or the signal transducing adapter family member1 (STAP1). FH often leads to early atherosclerosis. Its diagnosis can definitely be made only by molecular genetic testing. The detection of mutations of the LDLR, APOB, or PCSK9 is an indicator for extremely high cardiovascular risk, independently of the concentration of LDL cholesterol. FCHL is also common (1:100) and is seen in about 10% of patients with early myocardial infarction. It is produced by combinations of frequent genetic variants affecting triglycerides and LDL cholesterol. Other monogenic hyperlipoproteinemias (HLP) affect the catabolism of chylomicrons (familial chylomicronemia) or of remnants of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (typeIII hyperlipoproteinemia). Multiple hereditary disorders in HDL metabolism - with a broad spectrum of clinical significance - are known. Currently, second generation sequencing methods are used to simultaneously analyze multiple disease-causing genes. This approach cost-neutrally provides additional information such as the genetic risk of atherosclerosis and predisposition to statin intolerance.

Identifying the structure-activity relationship of leelamine necessary for inhibiting intracellular cholesterol transport.

Leelamine is an anticancer chemotherapeutic agent inhibiting intracellular cholesterol transport. Cell death mediated by leelamine occurs due to the lysosomotropic property of the compound, its accumulation in the lysosome, and inhibition of cholesterol transport leading to lack of availability for key processes required for functioning of cancer cells. The present study dissects the structure-activity-relationship of leelamine using synthesized derivatives of leelamine and abietic acid, a structurally similar compound, to identify the moiety responsible for anti-cancer activity. Similar to leelamine, all active derivatives had an amino group or a similar moiety that confers a lysosomotropic property to the compound enabling its accumulation in the lysosome. Active derivatives inhibited intracellular cholesterol transport and hindered xenografted melanoma tumor development without obvious systemic toxicity. In silico studies suggested that active derivatives accumulating in lysosomes bound to NPC1, a protein responsible for cholesterol export from the lysosome, to inhibit its activity that then caused accumulation, and lack of cholesterol availability for other key cellular activities. Thus, active derivatives of leelamine or abietic acid maintained lysosomotropic properties, bound to NPC1, and disrupted cellular cholesterol transport as well as availability to retard tumor development.

Short Communication: Accumulation of Neutral Lipids in Liver and Aorta of Nef-Transgenic Mice.

HIV-infected individuals are at high risk of developing atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, in part, due to HIV-induced impairment of cholesterol metabolism. In vitro studies demonstrated that HIV-1 protein Nef inhibits activity of ABCA1, the main cellular cholesterol transporter, leading to cholesterol accumulation in macrophages and conversion of these cells into foam cells, characteristic for atherosclerosis. However, the mechanisms of Nef-mediated effects on cholesterol metabolism in vivo are not well characterized. In this study, we generated Nef-transgenic mice and evaluated the accumulation of neutral lipids in liver and aorta of these animals. Nef expression was low in all transgenic mice, with some mice carrying the Nef transgene, but not expressing the Nef RNA. Using Oil Red O staining, we demonstrated increased levels of neutral lipids in liver and aorta of mice expressing Nef relative to transgenic animals, with no detectable Nef expression or control wild-type mice. These results provide direct evidence that Nef promotes cholesterol deposition in tissues.

Synthetic High-Density Lipoprotein-Like Nanocarrier Improved Cellular Transport of Lysosomal Cholesterol in Human Sterol Carrier Protein-Deficient Fibroblasts.

Sterol carrier protein-2 (SCP-2), which is not found in tissues of people with Zellweger syndrome, facilitates the movement of cholesterol within cells, resulting in abnormal accumulation of cholesterol in SCP-2-deficient cells. This study investigated whether synthetic high-density lipoprotein-like nanocarrier (sHDL-NC) improves the cellular transport of lysosomal cholesterol to plasma membrane in SCP-2-deficient fibroblasts. Human SCP-2-deficient fibroblasts were incubated with [(3)H-cholesterol]LDL as a source of cholesterol and sHDL-NC. The cells were fractionated by centrifugation permit tracking of [(3)H]-cholesterol from lysosome into plasma membrane. Furthermore, cellular content of cholesteryl ester as a storage form and mRNA expression of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor were measured to support the cholesterol transport to plasma membrane. Incubation with sHDL-NC for 8 h significantly increased uptake of [(3)H]-cholesterol to lysosome by 53% and further enhanced the transport of [(3)H]-cholesterol to plasma membrane by 32%. Treatment with sHDL-NC significantly reduced cellular content of cholesteryl ester and increased mRNA expression of LDL receptor (LDL-R). In conclusion, sHDL-NC enables increased transport of lysosomal cholesterol to plasma membrane. In addition, these data were indirectly supported by decreased cellular content of cholesteryl ester and increased gene expression of LDL-R. Therefore, sHDL-NC may be a useful vehicle for transporting cholesterol, which may help to prevent accumulation of cholesterol in SCP-2-deficient fibroblasts.

Transcriptional regulation of the human Liver X Receptor α gene by Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 4α

Liver X Receptors (LXRs) are sterol-activated transcription factors that play major roles in cellular cholesterol homeostasis, HDL biogenesis and reverse cholesterol transport. The aim of the present study was to investigate the mechanisms that control the expression of the human LXRα gene in hepatic cells. A series of reporter plasmids containing consecutive 5′ deletions of the hLXRα promoter upstream of the luciferase gene were constructed and the activity of each construct was measured in HepG2 cells. This analysis showed that the activity of the human LXRα promoter was significantly reduced by deleting the −111 to −42 region suggesting the presence of positive regulatory elements in this short proximal fragment. Bioinformatics data including motif search and ChIP-Seq revealed the presence of a potential binding motif for Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 4 α (HNF-4α) in this area. Overexpression of HNF-4α in HEK 293T cells increased the expression of all LXRα promoter constructs except −42/+384. In line, silencing the expression of endogenous HNF-4α in HepG2 cells was associated with reduced LXRα protein levels and reduced activity of the −111/+384 LXRα promoter but not of the −42/+384 promoter. Using ChiP assays in HepG2 cells combined with DNAP assays we mapped the novel HNF-4α specific binding motif (H4-SBM) in the −50 to −40 region of the human LXRα promoter. A triple mutation in this H4-SBM abolished HNF-4α binding and reduced the activity of the promoter to 65% relative to the wild type. Furthermore, the mutant promoter could not be transactivated by HNF-4α. In conclusion, our data indicate that HNF-4α may have a wider role in cell and plasma cholesterol homeostasis by controlling the expression of LXRα in hepatic cells.