Cell Phone Distractions Research Articles

Applying the Health Belief Model to mobile device distracted driving

Introduction: The advancement of mobile devices has resulted in constant connectivity, but at the expense of traffic safety. The goal of this study was to apply the Health Belief Model to understand the barriers preventing drivers from driving without manipulating their devices, and what they perceived would motivate them to stop driving distracted. Methods: We conducted a nationwide survey of 2,013 U.S. licensed drivers. Participants indicated how much they agreed with or supported 63 statements and concepts pertaining to the Health Belief Model constructs of threats, barriers, benefits, and cues to action related to manipulating devices while driving. Heath Belief Model constructs were compared between distracted drivers, or those who regularly did (during most or all drives in the previous 30 days) one or more mobile device tasks, and non-distracted drivers. Logistic regression evaluated the relationship between Health Belief Model constructs and distracted driver designation. Results: Those who agreed more with threats (odds ratio [OR], 1.61; 95 % confidence interval [CI], 1.27, 2.04) and disagreed more with barriers to stopping (OR, 0.36; 95 % CI, 0.31, 0.41) were more likely to not drive distracted. We identified distracted drivers’ top barriers to avoiding cellphone distractions, as well as barrier categories that were significantly greater for distracted drivers than non-distracted drivers. Distracted drivers felt most strongly that intrapersonal, interpersonal, and policy cues would motivate behavior termination, and more support of technological countermeasures was associated with regularly driving distracted after controlling for support for policy and organizational countermeasures. Conclusions: Simultaneously increasing threat perceptions, targeting the top barriers identified, and implementing policy-, interpersonal-, and technological-based countermeasures may encourage device-free driving. Practical Applications: When designing interventions or programs, state highway safety offices should find new ways to increase threat perceptions and offer solutions to the barriers most cited by distracted drivers.

The utility of telematics data for estimating the prevalence of driver handheld cellphone use, 2019–2022

Introduction: Driver distraction from handheld cellphone use contributes to fatal crashes every year but is underreported in terms of the proportion of crashes attributed to any distraction or cellphone use specifically. Existing methods to estimate the prevalence of cellphone distractions are also limited (e.g., observing drivers stopped at intersections, when crash risk is low). Our study used data from Cambridge Mobile Telematics to estimate the prevalence of drivers’ handheld calls and cellphone manipulation while driving, with “cellphone motion” based on movement recorded by the phones’ gyroscopes used as a surrogate for manipulation. Method: We compared the telematics measures with the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s roadside observations of driver electronic device use, and logistic regression tested relationships between regional, legislative, and temporal factors and the odds of cellphone behaviors occurring on a trip or at a given point in time. Results: Results showed 3.5% of trips included at least one handheld phone call and 33.3% included at least an instance of cellphone motion, with handheld calls occurring during 0.78% of overall trip duration and cellphone motion during 2.4% of trip duration. Conclusions: Correspondence between trends in cellphone distractions across regional, legislative, and temporal factors suggest telematics data have considerable utility and appear to complement existing datasets.

Assessing Different Methods for Detection of Distracted Driving

Roadside observations provide insight into the prevalence of distracted driving on American roadways. Traditional observational studies require the use of observers stationed on the roadside who manually annotate the behavior of passing drivers, while camera-based methods allow researchers to code distracted driving from photos without an observer on the scene. The current study compared the accuracy of a traditional in-person roadside observer with a camera-based method in identifying driver distraction. Both methods distinguished cellphone distractions from other behaviors with high accuracy, although the in-person observer performed slightly better than the camera-based method across most specific behaviors. This study demonstrates that both in-person and camera-based observations are reasonably accurate approaches for measuring the prevalence of cellphone distractions on the road. Camera-based methods may provide an advantage to in-person observers by enabling observations on roadways where it is not feasible to station a human observer.

Targeting young driver emotions can reduce their cellphone distractions

ObjectiveThis study sought to evaluate the relationship between young drivers’ intention to engage in cellphone distractions while driving and their emotions towards the associated risks. First, we assessed whether the emotions of guilt, shame, and fear are associated with young drivers’ intention to engage in cellphone distractions, through an extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) model. Second, we evaluated whether road signs that may evoke these negative emotions reduce cellphone use intentions among young drivers. MethodsAn online survey was conducted with young drivers (18 to 25 years old) from Ontario, Canada. 403 responses were collected, of which, 99 responses were used to evaluate the first objective and all 403 responses were used to evaluate the second objective. ResultsAnticipating feelings of guilt, shame, and fear negatively predicted the intention to engage in cellphone distractions, above and beyond the standard TPB constructs (i.e., attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control). When prompted with potentially emotion-evoking road signs (children crossing, my mom/dad works here), an increase in anticipated feelings of these emotions corresponded with lower intention to engage in cellphone distractions. ConclusionCountermeasures that target young driver emotions toward distracted driving risks may be effective in reducing their distraction engagement. Future studies in more controlled environments can investigate causal relationships between emotions and distracted driving among young drivers.

Young Driver Emotions Relate To Their Intention To Engage In Cellphone Distraction

Young drivers’ disproportionate involvement in road crashes due to cellphone distractions calls for remedial programs. Development of such programs requires an understanding of the reasons behind engagement in distractions and identifying factors to leverage, such as emotions. This investigation sought to determine how young drivers’ intention to engage in cellphone distractions is associated with negative emotions. An online survey was administered to 99 young drivers (18 to 25). Participants rated their intention to engage in cellphone distractions while driving and their anticipation of negative emotions while doing so. Our results showed an association between anticipating negative emotions and the intention to engage in cellphone distractions while driving. There was no difference between males and females in their reported intention. However, females reported greater anticipation of negative emotions compared to males. These findings have implications for emotion-based manipulations aimed at reducing distracted driving among young drivers.

Sustainable Public Safety and the Case of Two Epidemics: COVID-19 and Traffic Crashes. Can We Extrapolate from One to the Other?

COVID-19 and motor vehicle crashes (MVC) are both considered epidemics by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO), yet their progression, treatment and success in treatment have been very different. In this paper, we propose that the well-established sustainable safety approach to road safety can be applied to the management of COVID-19. We compare COVID-19 and MVC in terms of several defining characteristics, including evolvement and history, definitions and measures of evaluation, main attributes and characteristics, countermeasures, management and coping strategies, and key success factors. Despite stark differences, there are also some similarities between the two epidemics, and these enable insights into how the principles of sustainable road safety can be utilized to cope with and guide the treatment of COVID-19. Major guidelines that can be adopted include an aggressive policy set at the highest national level. The policy should be data- and science-based and would be most effective when relying on a systems approach (such as Sweden’s Vision Zero, the Netherlands’ Sustainable Safety, and the recommended EU Safe System). The policy should be enforceable and supplemented with positive public information and education campaigns (rather than scare tactics). Progression of mortality and morbidity should be tracked continuously to enable adjustments. Ethical issues (such as invasion of privacy) should be addressed to maximize public acceptance. Interestingly, the well-established domain of MVC can also benefit from the knowledge, experience, and strategies used in addressing COVID-19 by raising the urgency of detection and recognition of new risk factors (e.g., cell phone distractions), developing and implementing appropriate policy and countermeasures, and emphasizing the saliency of the impact of MVC on our daily lives.

Role of Habits in Cell Phone-Related Driver Distractions

Despite increased media attention and legislation banning some forms of cell phone use while driving, drivers continue to engage in illegal cell phone distractions. Several studies have used the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to explain why drivers voluntarily engage in cell phone distractions, and found that TPB constructs (attitudes, social norms, perceived behavioral control) predict intentions to engage in cell phone distractions while driving. Given that cell phone use is ubiquitous, habits that have formed around their general use may lead to automatic engagement in cell phone distractions while driving. This differs from voluntary engagement, in that habits are carried out automatically, with little thought given to the action or its consequences. Thus, in addition to the TPB constructs that explain intentions, habitual factors should also be considered in understanding why drivers use cell phones. A few studies have examined the role of habits in this context, but they only focused on texting behaviors. An online survey was conducted with 227 respondents to investigate the role of habitual cell phone use in driver engagement in a variety of illegal cell phone tasks (e.g., social media, email). Habitual cell phone use was found to explain unique variance in self-reported engagement after controlling for TPB constructs. Overall, the findings indicate that cell-phone-related distractions may not be entirely voluntary; instead, cell phone habits developed outside of the driving context appear to have a significant effect, suggesting that cell phone use while driving may have become automatic to a certain extent.

Investigating characteristics of cellphone distraction with significance tests and association rule mining

Due to the escalating usage of cellphones, cellphone distracted driving remains one of the fastest-growing traffic safety problems. Two basic types of cellphone distractions are – talking (handheld or hands-free) and manipulating (texting, internet browsing, using apps for social networking, navigation, entertainment, etc.). To explore the association between the cellphone distraction type and characteristics of a driver, roadway, and vehicle, we used Fisher's exact test and association rule mining to analyze the data from ten different hour-long observation sessions performed both at intersections and on straight continuous segments. Among 3727 drivers observed, 22.1% were found distracted by cellphones. More drivers were involved in manipulating (12.8%) than talking on the phone (9.3%). The Fisher's exact test results show that intersections and the presence of passengers may be significantly associated with driver distraction type. This study makes a novel attempt to utilize association rule mining in cellphone distraction observation. A set of generated rules and their network visualization demonstrated how a specific group of characteristics can be related to cellphone conversation or manipulation through the measures of support, confidence, and lift. 'Peak hour', 'Absence of passengers', and 'Urban setting' are more likely to be associated with distracted driving than other characteristics. The results from association rules revealed that male drivers were found to be predominantly involved in cellphone manipulation during peak hours on urban segments than female drivers, and they were also largely involved in cellphone conversation during peak hours on the rural segment. Female drivers engaged in manipulating cellphones at the urban intersection during both peak and off-peak hours. In the rural area during peak hours, female drivers were manipulating at the intersection and were talking while driving on the continuous segment. Drivers aged '30–60 years' were found to be more associated with cellphone use compared to '<30 years' and '>60 years' age group. 'Passenger car drivers during peak hours' were more associated with manipulating cellphones than expected compared to any other collective group, whereas 'female passenger car drivers driving on continuous segment' were strongly associated with cellphone conversation. The detailed discussion of the findings from association rule mining will be useful for targeting a specific group of relevant characteristics in potential cellphone distraction reduction strategies.

Evaluating the causal effects of cellphone distraction on crash risk using propensity score methods

Introduction/objectiveThis paper evaluates the causal effects of cellphone distraction on traffic crashes using propensity score weighting approaches and naturalistic driving study (NDS) data. MethodsWe adopt three propensity score weighting approaches to estimate the causal odds ratio (OR) of cellphone use on three different event-populations, including average treatment effect (ATE) on the whole population, average treatment effect on the treated population (ATT), and average treatment effect on the overlapping population (ATO). Three types of cellphone distractions are evaluated: overall cellphone use, talking, and visual-manual tasks. The propensity scores are estimated based on driver, roadway, and environmental characteristics. The Second Strategic Highway Research Program NDS data used in this study include 3400 participant drivers with 1047 severe crashes and 19,798 random case-cohort control driving segments. ResultsThe study reveals several highly imbalanced potential confounding factors among cellphone use groups, e.g., income, age, and time of day, which could lead to biased risk estimation. All three propensity score approaches improve the balance of the baseline characteristics. The propensity score adjusted ORs differ from unweighted ORs substantially, ranging from −44.25% to 54.88%. Specifically, the adjusted ORs for young drivers are higher than unweighted ORs and these for middle-age drivers are lower. Among different cellphone related distractions, the ORs associated with visual-manual tasks (OR range: 3.47–6.63) are uniformly higher than overall cellphone distraction and cellphone talking (OR range: 0.63–4.15). Cellphone talking increases the risk for young drivers but has no significant impact on middle-age drivers. ConclusionPropensity score approaches effectively mitigate potential confounding effect caused by imbalanced driver environmental characteristics in the observational NDS data. The ATT and ATO estimands are recommended for NDS case-cohort studies. ATT reflects the effect among exposed events, i.e. crashes or controls with cellphone exposure and ATO reflects the effect among events with similar characteristics. The study confirms the significant causal effect of overall cellphone distraction on crash risk and the heterogeneity in safety impact by age group.

Do Not Disturb While Driving – Use of cellphone blockers among adult drivers

IntroductionCellphone blockers are an emerging countermeasure for limiting driver distraction. This study focused on Apple’s Do Not Disturb While Driving (DND) application because of its unique rollout where owners were prompted to try it as part of a software update. MethodA telephone survey of 800 adult drivers who own smartphones was conducted to estimate cellphone blocker use. Logistic regression estimated relationships between cellphone blocker use and likelihood of reported cellphone use while driving. ResultsOnly 20.5% of respondents with DND-compatible iPhones had DND set to activate automatically when driving or when connected to a vehicle’s Bluetooth. Among respondents with DND-incompatible phones, 18.7% of respondents reported having an alternative non-DND blocker, and only half of these reported turning it on while driving at least three quarters of the time. Thirty-nine percent of drivers with DND-compatible iPhones who had DND set to turn on when manually activated trip-by-trip said they would not be frustrated if they received another prompt to use the application, and 26.7% reported they would be likely to try it if they received another prompt. Respondents classified as using blockers were less likely to report cellphone use, although results varied between those with DND and other blockers. ConclusionCellphone blockers have potential to limit cellphone distractions, although it is uncertain whether differences in behaviors reported here are caused by blockers or are a result of drivers selecting to use blockers because they are averse to phone use while driving. Practical applicationsPrompts to activate cellphone blockers from providers may increase their use.

Generalized Estimating Equation Model Based Recursive Partitioning: Application to Distracted Driving

Traditional statistical methods have used a coarse aggregation of data across subjects that may not be representative of any single individual. Even though Generalized Estimating Equations procedure extends generalized linear model to allow for analysis of repeated measurements or other correlated observations, the nonlinear relationship between independent variables and dependent variable could significantly hinder the model’s performance. In this study, we propose Generalized Estimating Equation based tree model that combines the advantages of both models by separating the data set recursively into subsets with significantly different parameter estimates. For the best application of the proposed model, distracted driving on intersection is analyzed in this study. Previous studies have focused on evaluating the singular effect of individual geometry and human characteristic variables on driving behaviors. Interactions between variables associated with red-light running (e.g., cell phone usage, cell phone interface, and driver age groups) present different levels of distraction on red-light running. As an indicator of the sensitivity to distractions (referring to the distance being an impairment due to a secondary task), the drivers’ distance to the intersection onset of yellow interval is partitioned into two groups (i.e., close and far distance) that maximally differentiate the distraction behavior. Proposed cell phone impact zones produce more significant impacts of distraction on red-light running, compared against dilemma zone. We identify interactions that are sensitive to red-light running and different as a function of the level of the speed and yellow interval duration. Drivers are more vulnerable to cell phone distractions when their location is near the stop line of the intersection at onset of yellow interval.

Heads Up, Phones Down: A Pedestrian Safety Intervention on Distracted Crosswalk Behavior.

Cell phone use has been implicated in driver distraction and motor vehicle crashes, and more recently has been associated with distracted pedestrians. There are limited data on interventions aimed at this important public health issue. We hypothesized that the use of a visual intervention near street crossings would decrease the frequency of distracted behaviors of pedestrians. We performed a prospective observational cohort study examining painted sidewalk stencils reading, "Heads Up, Phones Down" as an intervention to decrease cell phone distractions amongst pedestrians. These stenciled messages were placed at a children's hospital, middle school, and high school in Los Angeles County. Anonymous observations of pedestrian distractions (texting, talking on a phone, headphone use, and other) were conducted before, 1week after, and 4months after the intervention. Distractions were compared before and after intervention using Chi square tests. A total of 11,533 pedestrians were observed, with 71% children and 29% adults. Total distractions decreased from 23% pre-intervention to 17% 1week after stencil placement (p < 0.01), but this was not sustained at 4months (23%, p = 0.4). A sustained decrease was observed only for texting at 4months post-intervention (8.5% vs. 6.8%, p < 0.01). A simple visual intervention reduced distracted cell phone usage in pedestrians crossing the street, but this was most effective early after the intervention. Future studies are warranted to determine how to sustain this effect over time and how to minimize other types of distractions.

Texting During Homework: The Millennial Generation’s Ability to Thrive Despite Constant Technological Interruptions

Texting is a popular mode of communication for the millennial generation, today’s college students. Studies have shown that the majority of students text during class and that these interruptions negatively affect grades. Yet, students continue to believe they can multi-task -effectively balancing texting and coursework. Unfortunately, outside the classroom, students report even less regulation with their texting -checking and responding continuously, often for fear of being disconnected from those around them. Students who engage in self-regulatory strategies in the face of cell phone distractions have been found to better sustain attention and use effective behaviors to enhance cognitive learning in the classroom. In the current study, we examined whether these behaviors held outside a classroom environment by texting participants during a homework task. After controlling for self-regulatory skills and GPA, we foundthose who texted actually outperformed those who did not on cognitive skills (i.e., a reading quiz and essay), with the opposite effect found for grammar.

Influence of Driver Distractions on the Likelihood of Rear-End, Angular, and Single-Vehicle Crashes in Missouri

Driver distraction has been associated with a higher likelihood of crash involvement. Crash data from the state of Missouri for the years 2001 to 2006 revealed that the highest number of distraction-related crash incidents occurred while drivers were using cell phones or other electronic devices or had passengers in the car. A multinomial logit model was used to predict the odds that a driver with a specific type of distraction would be involved in one of the most frequent crash types, rear-end, angular, or single-vehicle collision, in comparison with each other. Results showed that distractions could have varying influences on crash type. More specifically, passenger-related and cell phone distractions are more likely in angular crashes; for other electronic device–related distractions, the most probable type of crash is a single-vehicle crash. Inferences made in this study should be considered in light of the fact that the data were limited in the number of reported distractions and the study was conducted in only one state. Future research comparing similar distraction factors across other states and nationally may provide a broader view of the type and severity of crashes related to driver distractions.

Fifty Years of Driving Safety Research

This brief review covers the 50 years of driving-related research published in Human Factors, its contribution to driving safety, and emerging challenges. Many factors affect driving safety, making it difficult to assess the impact of specific factors such as driver age, cell phone distractions, or collision warnings. The author considers the research themes associated with the approximately 270 articles on driving published in Human Factors in the past 50 years. To a large extent, current and past research has explored similar themes and concepts. Many articles published in the first 25 years focused on issues such as driver impairment, individual differences, and perceptual limits. Articles published in the past 25 years address similar issues but also point toward vehicle technology that can exacerbate or mitigate the negative effect of these issues. Conceptual and computational models have played an important role in this research. Improved crash-worthiness has contributed to substantial improvements in driving safety over the past 50 years, but future improvements will depend on enhancing driver performance and perhaps, more important, improving driver behavior. Developing models to guide this research will become more challenging as new technology enters the vehicle and shifts the focus from driver performance to driver behavior. Over the past 50 years, Human Factors has accumulated a large base of driving-related research that remains relevant for many of today's design and policy concerns.

Cellular Telephone Use: A Survey Of College Business Students

Whether it is hand held, in a pocket, on a backpack, clipped to a belt, or hidden in a brief case or purse, college students and cellular telephones go together. Communication with fellow students, professors, parents, and everyone else is just a click away. While walking across campus and down the halls of academic buildings, cellular telephones are being used. This research questions in what ways do students use cellular telephones and does this use interfere with or assist in learning and college life? This paper reports the results of a survey of undergraduate business students addressing this question. The objectives were to determine: (1) how much time is spent using a cell phone and which phone features are used most frequently, (2) what students believe concerning the impact of cell phones on learning in the classroom and during study, (3) how often students are in contact with parents on a cell phone, and (4) how much do students pay for cell phone services. The results indicate that 100% of the students own a cell phone. Sixty-six percent of the students use voice calls most frequently and 30% use text messages most often. A total of 55.8% of students report that they spend 3 hours or less on their cell phone daily and 44.8% spend four or more hours daily on their cell phones. Over half of the students report that they have some interaction with their cell phones during class time for every class. Seventy-seven percent state that this cell phone use seldom or never interferes with classroom learning. All of the students (100%) believe that they should be able to receive emergency information over a cell phone during class time. Seventy-six percent believe that cell phones seldom or never assist in classroom learning. However, students report that cell phone use impacts on study time outside of class. Cell phone distractions during study time outside class was reported by 34.6% of the students as happening often or always and an additional 43.5% are sometimes distracted by cell phones during study time. Bad or upsetting news received over a cell phone before class impacts academic performance of 14.2% of the students often or always. Thirty-five percent of the students talk to parents more than once a day and another 23.7% have contact on a daily basis. Therefore, 59.5% report that they have contact with their parents at least once a day. Fifteen percent of the students pay over $100 per month for cell phone service, 28% pay from $75 to $100, 34% spend $51 to $75, and 14% spend $26 to $50 per month. More than 90% of the students report that they have text messaging, calculator, clock, calendar, and appointment reminder on their cell phone. Over 70% have the internet and games. Over 60% have a camera and email. Only 13% have an MP3 music player and 7% have an FM radio.

The Impact of Mobile Phones and Other In-Car Technology on Driving

In The Psychology of Driving, Graham Hole discusses various aspects of driving: visual perception issues, cell phone distractions, fatigue, drugs, and the effects of aging. Hole's aim is to communicate his perspective on the impact of mobile phones and other in-car technology on driving performance, and he introduces general readers to the everyday experience of driving. Instead of providing an exhaustive documentation of research findings, Hole describes basic aspects of driving. The overall presentation of the material is at a level that is easily accessible to undergraduate students unfamiliar with the problems raised. Specifically, for persons with a general interest in psychology and driving, the discussions are adequate in most respects. In addition to discussions of research on the effects on driving of drugs, age, fatigue, and inexperience (the four big killers on our roads today), Hole summarizes literature on perceptual and attentional aspects of driving. He also spends a good portion of the book summarizing the literature on mobile phones and other in-car technology. Much of Hole's discussion reflects his thoughts about the effects of using a mobile phone while driving and how using a mobile phone while driving affects a driver's ability to detect hazards. Hole contends that hands-free phones are no better than hand-held phones as far as driving safety is concerned. In summary, Hole focuses on the distracting impact that using a mobile phone while driving has on a driver's attention and the way it removes the driver's attention from the outside world. When drivers use a mobile phone while driving, they have a restricted breadth of attention and have a kind of tunnel vision compared with undistracted drivers. An unfortunate limitation of Hole's review of the literature is that much of the cited literature is out of date. In fact, only 18 percent of the publications cited in the book are from works published within the last five years. For a work purporting to cover a specialty in a social science discipline, these citations

The effect of distractions on the crash types of teenage drivers

Teenage drivers are overrepresented in crashes when compared to middle-aged drivers. Driver distraction is becoming a greater concern among this group as in-vehicle devices, opportunities for distractions, and teenage drivers’ willingness to engage in these activities increase. The objective of this study was to determine how different distraction factors impact the crash types that are common among teenage drivers. A multinomial logit model was developed to predict the likelihood that a driver will be involved in one of three common crash types: an angular collision with a moving vehicle, a rear-end collision with a moving lead vehicle, and a collision with a fixed object. These crashes were evaluated in terms of four driver distraction categories: cognitive, cell phone related, in-vehicle, and passenger-related distractions. Different driver distractions have varying effects on teenage drivers’ crash involvement. Teenage drivers that were distracted at an intersection by passengers or cognitively were more likely to be involved in rear-end and angular collisions when compared to fixed-object collisions. In-vehicle distractions resulted in a greater likelihood of a collision with a fixed object when compared to angular collisions. Cell phone distractions resulted in a higher likelihood of rear-end collision. The results from this study need to be evaluated with caution due to the limited number of distraction related cases available in the U.S. GES crash database. Implications for identifying and improving the reporting of driver distraction related factors are therefore discussed.