Cavitation Erosion Behavior Research Articles

Cavitation erosion behaviour of MAB-CU4 alloy: influences of cavitation number, attack angle, time, and stand-off distance

Abstract The present study comprehensively examines the cavitation erosion behaviour of a manganese aluminium bronze alloy (MAB-CU4 alloy) as a function of several parameters (i.e., cavitation angle, cavitation number, time, and stand-off distance), particularly focusing on the influences of cavitation angle on the surface morphology and topography of the alloy. According to the design of experiment (Taguchi experimental design) analysis, mass loss increased with cavitation number and attack angle, while increasing the stand-off distance resulted in a decrease in mass loss and an increase in the surface area affected by cavitation erosion. Cavitation erosion behaviour was most affected by the cavitation attack angle, with the cavitation attack angle contributing 69.1% to total erosion, according to variance analysis. At 90° cavitation attack angle, MAB-CU4’s erosion rate was 64% greater than that at 30°. Scanning electron microscopy and optical profilometry revealed that cavitation erosion damage at 90° occurred mostly in the grain interiors as cavitation pits due to severe plastic deformation and surface corrosion, whereas pit formation was restricted around the hard secondary phases at the grain boundaries. At 30°, deep cavitation pits were limited, the erosion crater expanded, and the number of pits was reduced. Overall, finer microstructures with more grain boundaries and secondary phases may improve cavitation erosion resistance at 90°. The present study is the first to comprehensively capture erosion damage at the microstructural scale and analyse the impact of microstructural features on the erosion damage during the cavitation erosion of MAB-CU4 alloy.

Research on the Cavitation Resistance Testing of Friction Stir Welded Joint of En Aw 1200 Aluminium Alloy

Aluminium alloys are being used more often as a result of industry demands for strong, lightweight materials. Because of its advantages over conventional fusion welding techniques, friction stir welding, or FSW, has become a promising technique for joining aluminium alloys. Nonetheless, there is still cause for concern regarding FSW joints' vulnerability to cavitation erosion, which is a major issue in applications exposed to harsh environments. The cavitation resistance of EN AW 1200 aluminium alloy joints made by the FSW process is the main objective of this study. By utilizing specialized equipment to conduct cavitation tests, the study uses a comprehensive methodology to assess the cavitation erosion behaviour of these joints. A number of variables are investigated in order to determine how they affect the cavitation resistance of the welded joints, including mechanical attributes, welding parameters, and microstructural features. The goal of the study is to shed light on how well FSW joints function and hold up in cavitation scenarios. This information will be useful in improving the dependability and suitability of EN AW 1200 aluminium alloy in sectors where the ability to withstand cavitation erosion is critical. The findings from this study are expected to contribute to the optimization of welding parameters and material selection, ultimately advancing the use of aluminium alloys in critical applications requiring resistance to cavitation-induced damage.

Wear, corrosion and cavitation erosion behavior of WC-reinforced FeCrNiMnAl ceramic-high entropy alloy composite coatings by laser cladding

FeCrNiMnAl/WC ceramic-high entropy alloy (HEA) composite coatings with various WC content are prepared on 304 stainless steel (304 SS) by laser cladding (LC). Experimental results show that residual tensile stress of coatings increases with the addition of WC content, and excessive addition of WC leads to cracking in 15WC and 20WC. All coatings are composed of BCC and WC duplex, and the addition of WC particles significantly refines grain size of the coatings. Compared with FeCrNiMnAl HEA coating, the coatings with WC addition exhibit improving mechanical properties and wear resistance due to the combined effect of multiple strengthening mechanisms. Among the tested coatings, 10WC exhibits the highest cavitation erosion (CE) resistance due to its excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.

Iso-Material Manufactured 17-4PH Stainless Steel to Enhance the Nano-indentation, Corrosion, and Cavitation Erosion Behavior

Iso-Material Manufactured 17-4PH Stainless Steel to Enhance the Nano-indentation, Corrosion, and Cavitation Erosion Behavior

Effect of ZrO2 Particles on the Microstructure and Ultrasonic Cavitation Properties of CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloy Composite Coatings

CoCrFeMnNi-XZrO2 (X is a mass percentage, X = 1, 3, 5, and 10) high-entropy alloy composite coatings were successfully prepared on 0Cr13Ni5Mo martensitic stainless steel substrates using laser cladding technology. The phase composition, microstructure, mechanical properties, and cavitation erosion behavior of the composite coatings under different contents of ZrO2 were studied. The mechanism of ZrO2 particle-reinforced cavitation corrosion resistance was studied using ABAQUS2023 finite element software. The results show that the phase structure of the composite coating organization is composed of FCC phase reinforced by ZrO2 phase. The addition of ZrO2 causes lattice distortion. The coatings have typical branch crystals and an equiaxed crystal microstructure. With the increase in ZrO2 content, the microhardness of the composite coatings gradually increases. When X = 10%, the coating’s microhardness reached 348 HV, which was 95.53% higher than the high-entropy alloys without ZrO2 added. Adding ZrO2 can prolong the incubation period of high-entropy alloys; the high-entropy alloy composite coating with 5 wt.% ZrO2 exhibited the best cavitation resistance, with a cumulative volume loss rate of only 15.74% of the substrate after 10 h of ultrasonic cavitation erosion. The simulation results indicate that ZrO2 can withstand higher stress and deformation in cavitation erosion, reduce the degree of substrate damage, and generate higher compressive stress on the coating surface to cope with cavitation erosion.

Ultrasonic Cavitation Erosion Behavior of GX40CrNiSi25-20 Cast Stainless Steel through Yb-YAG Surface Remelting.

Laser beam remelting is a relatively simple and highly effective technique for the physical modification of surfaces to improve resistance to cavitation erosion. In this study, we investigated the effect of laser remelting on the surface of cast stainless steel with 0.40% C, 25% Cr, 20% Ni, and 1.5% Si on cavitation erosion behavior in tap water. The investigation was conducted using a piezoceramic crystal vibrator apparatus. Base laser beam parameters were carefully selected to result in a defect-free surface (no porosity, material burn, cracks) with hardness capable of generating better resistance to cavitation erosion. The experimental results were compared with those of the reference material. Surface morphology and microstructure evolution after cavitation tests were analyzed using an optical metallographic microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and hardness tests to explore the mechanism of improving surface degradation resistance. The conducted research demonstrated that surfaces modified by laser remelting exhibit a 4.8-5.1 times greater increase in cavitation erosion resistance due to the homogenization of chemical composition and refinement of the microstructure, while maintaining the properties of the base material.

Fracture toughness and cavitation erosion behavior of Fe-based amorphous composite coatings with Ni-coated Al2O3 addition

Fe-based amorphous composite coatings were prepared on 304 stainless steel substrates using atmosphere plasma spraying (APS), aiming to investigate the effect of Ni-coated Al2O3 particles addition on fracture toughness and cavitation erosion behavior of Fe-based composite coatings. The microstructure, phase composition, elastic modulus, microhardness and fracture toughness of the coating were characterized using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), microhardness tester and nanoindentation. The cavitation erosion behavior of Fe-based coatings was investigated by ultrasonic vibration cavitation method. Fe-based amorphous composite coatings exhibit a characteristic lamellar microstructure and reveal the presence of amorphous phases along with α-(Fe, Cr), NiO, Ni and Al2O3 crystalline phases. When the content of Ni-coated Al2O3 in coating increases from 0 wt% to 3 wt%, there is slight deterioration in porosity from 3.64 % to 4.75 % and fracture toughness from 2.579 MPa·m1/2 to 2.392 MPa·m1/2, yet an increase in microhardness from 925.4 HV0.5 to 1090.3 HV0.5. The composite coating with 3 wt% Ni-coated Al2O3 demonstrates the peak cavitation resistance and its cumulative mass loss is significantly reduced by 36.4 % compared to the pure Fe-based coating. The cavitation erosion failure of Fe-based amorphous composite coatings is predominantly characterized by the brittle fracture mechanism. The fundamental process driving cavitation erosion damage involves the material peeling and coating delamination instigated by intense micro-jet impact and shock wave propagation. The proposed Fe-based amorphous composite coatings can be applied to improve the anti-cavitation performance of components in contact with high-speed fluids, such as ship propellers and centrifugal pump blades.

On the effect of salt bath nitrocarburizing on the cavitation erosion behavior of AISI 304L stainless steel

In this study, salt bath nitrocarburizing was applied on austenitic stainless steel AISI 304L to stabilize austenite at the surface exposed to cavitation attack. Samples were treated at 470 °C and 500 °C for 6 h, giving an average thickness of the nitrocarburized layer of 6 µm and 26 µm, respectively. The thickness of the nitrocarburized layer is found to influence the formation of deformation-induced martensite (DIM) in the material and, thereby, the cavitation erosion resistance. The mass loss vs. time plot shows that the nitrocarburized specimens performed significantly better than the base material under ultrasonic vibratory cavitation erosion test (ASTM G32). Cross-sectional micrographs show that the phenomenon responsible for the failure in the base material is the formation of DIM. The specimen, nitrocarburized at 470 °C, showed a reduction of about 90 % in mass loss when compared to the base material (AISI 304L SS), owing to a higher yield strength (/resilience) after the formation of more stable austenite.

Non-destructive Evaluation of Cavitation Erosion Behavior of Alumina-based Ceramic Samples

Numerous industrial parts, devices, and processes are designed to withstand the conditions that lead to cavitation erosion. Metallic, ceramic, and composite materials used for these conditions must achieve specific mechanical characteristics required to resist cavitation erosion. When molten metal or alloy flows and comes into contact with refractory material or coated furnace linings, cavitation erosion can occur. This phenomenon is particularly expected in metallurgy, especially in casting operations. Alumina-based refractories, specifically low cement castable (ALCC), are often used in furnace lining applications due to their superior properties, such as high refractoriness, thermal stability, and mechanical characteristics. Mullite is another refractory material frequently used in foundry lining applications. It can be utilized as a coating in casting processes, such as the Lost Foam process, which is a novel method for producing high-quality, cost-effective castings. These two refractory materials were chosen to study their behavior under cavitation conditions. An ultrasonic vibratory test with a stationary specimen (ASTM G-32) was used for experimental cavitation determination. The results of mass loss and surface morphological parameters of degradation revealed that ALCC samples eroded predominantly at the surface, while the mullite samples exhibited more significant degradation by depth.

Effect of Si and prolonged time on interfacial morphologies and cavitation erosion behavior of directionally solidified Fe-B alloy in flowing liquid zinc

The effect of Si and prolonged time on interfaces and cavitation erosion behavior of directionally solidified (DS) Fe-B alloy in flowing liquid zinc was investigated. The results show Si enriches in α-Fe intragranular and α/Fe2B boundaries to refine textured grains. DS Fe-B alloy with 2.5 wt%Si exhibits the best cavitation erosion resistance to flowing zinc, which is attributed to formation of alternating distributed Γ-Fe3Zn10 and FeSi and subsequently columnar ζ-FeZn13. Cavitation erosion resistance mechanism of DS Fe-B alloy with 2.5 wt%Si is manifested that Si-induced Γ-Fe3Zn10 and FeSi and the rooting-whisker ζ-FeZn13 layer can inhibit spallation and cracks of Fe2B and products.

CAVITATION EROSION BEHAVIOR OF WC–Co COATINGS ON TURBINE STEEL DEPOSITED BY COLD SPRAY

A renowned hard coating material (WC–Co) has the potential to overcome cavitation erosion (CE) in hydromachinery components. Hydro turbines that employ silt-filled water for electricity generation create a lot of metal waste due to erosion and cavitation caused by the particles. There is an urgent need for repair of hydropower components that have undergone damage due to cavitation. In this investigation, tungsten carbide composite coatings were produced on 13Cr4Ni (CA6NM) stainless steel substrates using the cold spray method. In order to create high-quality coatings, nitrogen was used as the propellant gas. The coating microstructures were characterized by EDS, SEM XRD, and microhardness tests. Cold-sprayed WC–Co-based coatings were exposed to enhance the cavitation erosion resistance of CA6NM steel. Cold spray coating prepared with WC-12/17Co powder has shown excellent wear-resistant properties due to higher hardness and lower porosity.

Microstructural transformation and corrosion–cavitation behavior of ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modified nickel aluminum bronze (NAB)

In this study, nickel–aluminum bronze (NAB) is optimized by ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification (UNSM), and its surface microstructural evolution, surface hardness, electrochemical corrosion behavior, and cavitation erosion behavior are investigated. The potentiodynamic polarization curves and electrochemical impedance spectra before and after UNSM treatment of NAB are measured using a typical three-electrode system. The cavitation erosion process is simulated through the vibration of ultrasonic waves underwater, and the cavitation erosion resistance performance of various specimens is evaluated. UNSM significantly refines the coarse and heterogeneous multi-phase structure of the cast NAB, providing a relatively uniform and dispersed structure. Simultaneously, severe plastic deformation rapidly increases micro-strains on the NAB surface, which effectively improves its surface hardness from 211 to 360 Hv. After UNSM treatment, the corrosion potential increases slightly; and the passivation potential and current decrease considerably, dropping from 207 to 103 mV and from 5.23 to 2.41 mA/cm2, respectively. This is primarily because of the slowdown of selective-phase corrosion and the uniform formation of an oxide film. Additionally, UNSM parameters affect corrosion potential by regulating surface roughness. A smoother surface corresponds to a higher corrosion potential at the same load. UNSM treatment significantly improves the cavitation corrosion resistance of NAB, primarily because an increase in hardness and uniform distribution of structure effectively slows the speed of crack formation and propagation, which is a result of the synergistic improvement of mechanical and corrosion resistance properties.

Effects of W element on the microstructure, wear and cavitation erosion behavior of CoCrFeNiMnWx high entropy alloy coatings by laser cladding

CoCrFeNiMnWx (x = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2) high entropy alloy (HEA) coatings were prepared on the surface of 304 stainless steel (304 SS) by laser cladding technology. The effects of W addition on the microstructure, microhardness, friction and wear properties, and cavitation erosion (CE) resistance of the coatings were thoroughly studied. The results show that the phase structure of the CoCrFeNiMnWx HEA coatings exhibits FCC structure, and the microstructure is typical dendrite (DR) and inter-dendrite (ID) morphology. With the increase of W content, the average grain size of CoCrFeNiMnWx HEA coatings gradually decreases. The microhardness of CoCrFeNiMnWx HEA coatings increases first and then decreases due to the brittle cracking caused by the excessive addition of W element. The wear resistance of CoCrFeNiMnW1 HEA coating is the highest, and its wear rate is much lower than that of CoCrFeNiMn HEA coating without W addition. The wear mechanism of CoCrFeNiMnWx HEA coatings is mainly adhesive wear, abrasive wear and oxidation wear, and the fatigue wear mechanism appears on CoCrFeNiMnW2 HEA coating. In addition, CoCrFeNiMnW1 HEA coating displays the highest CE resistance, and its mass loss after CE in 3.5 wt%Nacl solution is lower than that of CoCrFeNiMn HEA coating. The appropriate addition of W element can effectively improve the resistance to wear and CE of CoCrFeNiMnWx HEA coatings, showing a great potential in improving the service lifespan of overflow parts in marine environment.

Cavitation erosion-corrosion properties of as-cast TC4 and LPBF TC4 in 0.6 mol/L NaCl solution: A comparison investigation

In this work study, a comparative analysis was undertaken to investigate investigation into the cavitation erosion (CE) and corrosion behavior of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) TC4 and as-cast TC4 in 0.6 mol/L NaCl solution. Relevant results indicated that LPBF TC4 revealed a rectangular checkerboard-like pattern with a more refined grain size compared to as-cast TC4. Meanwhile, LPBF TC4 surpassed its as-cast counterpart in CE resistance, demonstrating approximately 2.25 times lower cumulative mass loss after 8 h CE. The corrosion potential under alternating CE and quiescence conditions demonstrated that both LPBF TC4 and as-cast TC4 underwent a rapid potential decrease at the initial stages of CE, while a consistent negative shift in corrosion potential was observed with the continuously increasing CE time, indicative of a gradual decline in repassivation ability. The initial surge in corrosion potential during the early CE stages was primarily attributed to accelerated oxygen transfer. As CE progressed, the significant reduction in corrosion potential for both LPBF TC4 and as-cast TC4 was attributed to the breakdown of the passive film. The refined and uniform microstructure in LPBF TC4 effectively suppresses both crack formation and propagation, underscoring the potential of LPBF technology in enhancing the CE resistance of titanium alloys. This work can provide important insights into developing high-quality, reliable, and sustainable CE-resistant materials via LPBF technology.

Influence of TiO2dopingand spraying power on the microstructure, mechanical properties and cavitation erosion resistance of YSZ coatings

Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) and TiO2- doped YSZ (TiYSZ) coatings were prepared using Atmospheric Plasma Spraying (APS) at different power levels to protect of flow passage components from cavitation erosion. We analyzed, the effects of TiO2 doping and spraying power on the coatings' phase structure, microstructure and mechanical properties using XRD, Raman spectroscopy, SEM, Vickers hardness and nano-indentation. We tested the cavitation erosion behavior of TiYSZ coatings and YSZ coatings (as a reference) in a laboratory setting employing vibration-induced cavitation in accordance with ASTM standard G32-16. The results showed that the YSZ coating contained 50% c-phase and 50% t-phase, while the TiYSZ coating contained approximately 78 % c-phase. Spraying power hadlittle effect on the phase structure of either coating. However, higher spraying power increased the density of the coating, leading to greater microhardness. TiYSZ coatings were denser than YSZ at any power level and did not exhibit a distinct microcolumnar grain structure, unlike YSZ. Additionally, TiYSZ coatings displayed better mechanical properties, including higher hardness, elastic modulus, toughness, and fracture strength compared to YSZ. As a result, the cavitation resistance of TiYSZ coatings improved by about 50% compared to YSZ. Furhermore, we found that chemical degradation of YSZ-based ceramics under cavitation erosion conditions plays a role in cavitation erosion. We also observed that cavitation-induced amorphization is a key mechanism contributing to this degradation.

Effects of heat treatment on the nano-indentation, corrosion and cavitation erosion behavior of 17-4PH stainless steel by laser surface melting

The effects of heat treatment on the microstructure, residual stresses, nano-indentation behavior, the resistance to the corrosion and cavitation erosion (CE) of 17-4PH stainless steel (17-4PH SS) by laser surface melting (LSM) were thoroughly investigated. Experimental results showed that the samples were mainly composed of martensite phase, and the NbC precipitations formed after heat treatment. The distribution of NbC precipitations was more uniform in the sample (S3) after solution treatment 3 h at 1040 °C + aging treatment 3 h at 480 °C. The grain size was increased for the samples after heat treatment. This heat treatment processing significantly reduced the residual stresses generated from the LSM process, and the nano-indentation behavior of the LSM samples after heat treatment was improved compared to that of the LSM sample without heat treatment. The S3 sample displayed the highest corrosion resistance as indicated by the low corrosion current density (icorr), high pitting potential (Epit) and high polarization resistance (Rp). The CE resistance of samples after heat treatment in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution was higher than that of the sample without heat treatment. Among them, the S3 sample exhibited the highest CE resistance, and its CE mass loss was only 59.5 % of the sample without heat treatment. The excellent CE resistance resulted from the appropriate combination of mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and self-recovery ability of the passivation film.

Comparison of the corrosion and cavitation erosion behaviors of the cast and surface-modified manganese-aluminum bronzes in sodium chloride solution

Modified layers with refined and homogenized microstructure were obtained on a cast manganese aluminum bronze (MAB) by friction stir processing (FSP) and laser surface melting (LSM). In 3.5% NaCl solution, a much more protective film was formed and uniform corrosion occurred for the two surface-modified MABs. The corrosion rate of the cast sample was reduced by a factor of 29.73% after FSP and 51.35% after LSM. The cavitation erosion (CE) rate of the cast MAB was about 1.83 and 3.07 times larger than that of the FSP and LSM samples, respectively. The CE resistance increment was highly attributed to the improved hardness and enhanced nano-indentation behavior after FSP or LSM. For each MAB, the CE resistance decreased with extended pre-immersion time. Compared with the result of the correspondingly freshly-prepared sample, the CE rate was raised by a factor of 36.22%, 42.97% and 44.00% after 30 days’ pre-immersion for the cast, FSP and LSM MABs, respectively. For the cast and FSP MABs, mechanical impact was the leading factor accounting for CE degradation. For the pre-corroded samples, corrosion damage at the β and κ phases weakened the mechanical properties and thus triggered more grievous material exfoliation under CE. For the LSM MAB, CE-corrosion synergy dominantly gave rise to the CE damage. Corrosion at grain boundaries after pre-immersion also deteriorated the CE performance. The LSM MAB possessed the highest corrosion and CE resistances because the fine single-phase microstructure reduced the galvanic corrosion effect and crack propagation tendency under CE impact.

Effects of plastic deformation ability and fluid medium on the cavitation erosion behavior of carbon nanotube reinforced cermet coatings

In this work, the cermet/MWCNTs powder was manufactured and the composite coatings with MWCNTs-reinforced interlayer interface were fabricated by the high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) spraying to enhance the cavitation erosion resistance (CER). MWCNTs effectively reduced the porosities and increased the plastic deformation ability of the composite coatings. In distilled water, MWCNTs in the interlayer dispersed stress and inhibited crack initiation during cavitation erosion. The incorporation of 0.2 wt% MWCNTs led to a significant enhancement in the CER of the composite coatings, exhibiting an improvement rate of 39.34%. The cavitation erosion mechanism changed from micro-jet impact to micro-particle impact in SiO2 dispersion. The spalling effect during the micro-particle impact process diminished the reinforcement of MWCNTs and the CER of the composite coatings.

Simulation of cavitation erosion damage and structural evolution caused by nano-bubbles for iron

In this work, the dynamic behavior of nano-bubbles near the surface of single crystal iron (Fe) was investigated using molecular dynamics simulations. The cavitation erosion behavior of single crystal Fe and the structural evolution of its eroded surface was examined at different bubble diameters. The results show that nano-bubble diameter is inversely correlated with impact pressure and diameter is positively correlated with nanojet energy. The volume, surface area, and depth of cavitation pits are nearly directly proportional to the bubble diameter with correlation linear fitting coefficients of R2 = 0.9837, R2 = 0.9922, and R2 = 0.9799, respectively. Additionally, cavitation erosion induces the structural evolution of iron atoms from bcc to fcc and hcp structures. The percentage of new phase transformed is related to the bubble diameter and the type of transformed structure, the percentage of fcc and hcp structures of Fe atoms exhibits an increasing trend with the increase in the bubble diameter, and the Fe atoms of fcc structures occur an obvious increase beyond a bubble diameter of 12 nm.

Effect of Si addition on the microstructure and liquid lead-bismuth eutectic cavitation erosion behaviors of AlCrFeMoTi laser clade coatings

High entropy alloys exhibit high resistance to the lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE), making them promising candidate materials for protective coatings. However, improving their mechanical properties and resistance to cavitation erosion in flowing LBE environment remains a challenge. In this study, AlCrFeMoTi coatings were synthesized using laser cladding, and Si was added to enhance their resistance to cavitation erosion. The results showed that the AlCrFeMoTi coatings mainly contained FeMoTi and Fe-Cr phases. After the addition of Si, a single phase FeMoTi was formed. Moreover, Si increased the hardness of the coatings by 9.6%. After cavitation erosion in LBE at 500 ℃, cracks formed on the surface of the coatings and the main damage mechanism of the coating was lamellar spalling. The addition of Si inhibited crack propagation and reduced the erosion depth of the coatings by 43.5%. It can be attributed to the addition of Si makes the oxidation homogeneous and the strengthening of the single-phase.