Causes Of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Research Articles

Identifying ADHD-Related Abnormal Functional Connectivity with a Graph Convolutional Neural Network.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The neural mechanisms underlying ADHD remain inadequately understood, and current approaches do not well link neural networks and attention networks within brain networks. Our objective is to investigate the neural mechanisms related to attention and explore neuroimaging biological tags that can be generalized within the attention networks. In this paper, we utilized resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data to examine the differential functional connectivity network between ADHD and typically developing individuals. We employed a graph convolutional neural network model to identify individuals with ADHD. After classification, we visualized brain regions with significant contributions to the classification results. Our results suggest that the frontal, temporal, parietal, and cerebellar regions are likely the primary areas of dysfunction in individuals with ADHD. We also explored the relationship between regions of interest and attention networks, as well as the connection between crucial nodes and the distribution of positively and negatively correlated connections. This analysis allowed us to pinpoint the most discriminative brain regions, including the right orbitofrontal gyrus, the left rectus gyrus and bilateral insula, the right inferior temporal gyrus and bilateral transverse temporal gyrus in the temporal region, and the lingual gyrus of the occipital lobe, multiple regions of the basal ganglia and the upper cerebellum. These regions are primarily involved in the attention executive control network and the attention orientation network. Dysfunction in the functional connectivity of these regions may contribute to the underlying causes of ADHD.

Prospective and Cross-Sectional Factors Predicting Caregiver Motivation to Vaccinate Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder against COVID-19: A Follow-Up Study.

Adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have higher risks of contracting COVID-19 and worse outcomes compared with adolescents without ADHD. The most effective method of preventing infection is vaccination. This follow-up study explored the prospective and cross-sectional factors influencing caregiver willingness to vaccinate children with ADHD against COVID-19. Baseline data on caregiver demographics, affiliate stigma, parenting stress, emotional difficulties, beliefs regarding the causes of ADHD, and ADHD symptoms were collected prior to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan. At follow-up, the study assessed caregiver willingness to vaccinate children with ADHD, the challenges caregivers faced in parenting during the pandemic, and ADHD symptoms. The results revealed that caregiver age at baseline was positively associated with a willingness to vaccinate children against COVID-19 at follow-up. By contrast, the belief that ADHD resulted from failures in parental discipline at baseline was negatively associated with caregiver willingness to vaccinate. Parenting challenges were also negatively associated with caregiver willingness to vaccinate. Therefore, the age of caregivers, beliefs about the causes of ADHD, and parenting challenges during the pandemic should be considered when developing interventions to enhance caregiver willingness to vaccinate children with ADHD.

Understanding ADHD stigma: The predictive roles of beliefs about the causes of ADHD and self-reported ADHD symptoms

The present cross-sectional study explored the link between beliefs about the causes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), self-reported ADHD symptoms, and the perceived related stigma. The sample was convenient and comprised 231 adults aged 18 to 64 years (M = 27.50, SD = 9.77, XX (88.3%) females) without an ADHD diagnosis. Participants completed self-reported scales measuring ADHD symptoms, stigma, and an adapted Literacy Scale measuring the beliefs about the causes of ADHD (i.e., beliefs that ADHD is caused by adversity, by biomedical factors, fate, or the environment). The results suggested that self-reported ADHD symptoms and beliefs that the causes of ADHD are biomedical were positively linked to ADHD-related perceived stigma. The multiple hierarchical regression analysis exploring the predictive power of age, self-reported ADHD symptoms, and beliefs about its causes on the perceived ADHD stigma suggested that these variables explained 11.7% of the variance in ADHD-related stigma. The strongest predictor of ADHD stigma was self-reported ADHD symptoms, followed by beliefs that ADHD is caused by biomedical factors.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Causes and Diagnosis in Adults: A Review.

This article focuses on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in males of the adult age group, exploring its causes and diagnosis. ADHD is commonly identified in children and teenagers, often leading to academic difficulties. Diagnosing adult ADHD involves evaluating recent symptoms, assessing childhood history, examining functional impairment, obtaining developmental and mental health backgrounds, and ruling out other psychiatric conditions. The diagnostic assessment primarily relies on patient interviews, though input from family members and other sources can be valuable. Men and women show differences in ADHD symptoms and associated neurological conditions, with males more frequently diagnosed with ADHD. Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity are signs of ADHD. The difficulties in identifying adult ADHD and separating it from behavioural problems are covered in the essay. It also explores the various symptoms of ADHD in children and adults and their impact on daily life. The causes of ADHD involve abnormalities in brain structure and function, as well as genetic factors. Treatment options for adult ADHD encompass medication, education, skill training, and psychological counselling. While medications can help manage symptoms, they do not provide a cure. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for a healthy lifestyle alongside therapy and medication to manage ADHD symptoms effectively.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Connotation, Influencing Factors, Treatment and Prevention

This paper provides an overview of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in terms of its causes, prevention and treatment. In the literature review section, the definition and types of ADHD are firstly presented, namely Hyperactive, Inattentive and Combined. Naturally, the environmental and personal causes of ADHD are presented as well as some of the adverse effects on the sufferer and even on the offspring of the sufferer, and it is found that the most significant factor is the parental environment, so it is inferred that in the treatment of ADHD as well as in the prevention of ADHD, some guidance can be given to parents to intervene in the development of ADHD through them to avoid lifelong effects on the sufferer. Some preventive measures and specific approaches to treatment are then discussed. Finally, some suggestions are made for future treatment and follow-up research on ADHD. Overall, reading this article will provide a comprehensive understanding of ADHD, especially its causes, a detailed understanding of the causes for better treatment interventions, and an insight into the effects of ADHD on people.

Teachers’ Perceptions and Practices Towards Inclusive Education for Children with ADHD in Scotland: A Qualitative Investigation

ABSTRACT Limited qualitative research has examined teachers’ understanding of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), their attitudes towards the inclusion of children with ADHD in mainstream schools and how they support such learners . To address this, the current study used qualitative methodology to examine teachers’ understanding of ADHD, their attitudes towards inclusion and their inclusive behaviours for children with ADHD. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers (n = 10) working in 10 Scottish schools. A thematic analysis identified four themes: ADHD Existence and Importance; Girls Go Under the Radar; The Impact of Limited Training; Working Inclusively. Teachers’ perceptions may impact upon ADHD diagnosis and successful inclusion. The findings suggest the need for training to educate teachers about the causes of ADHD and the role of gender in symptoms. Classroom teachers should have access to more support to help them work successfully with children with ADHD. The study provides recommendations for teacher education and professional development surrounding ADHD.

Estimated prevalence study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among eastern province children in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Studying mental disorders in children is significantly important due to the huge suffering of educational and psychosocial impairments in adult life. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is considered the most common mental disorder in children, especially in early school-aged children. It manifests in about 8%-12% of children in the world. In Saudi Arabia, it affects 4%-12% of children. The study aimed to count the number of undiagnosed ADHD cases and the associated risk factors in Eastern Province in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). A cross-sectional study was performed among girls' and boys' children aged 6-10 years old in Eastern Province in KSA with a random selection of parents. Sample size is equal to 1658. The assessment was done by an online questionnaire filled it by parents using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition diagnostic criteria and Connor's scale of ADHD excluding any developmental or mental disorder at the beginning of the questionnaire. After excluding the participants who were diagnosed with behavioral and growth developmental disorder, the remaining 1430 have been screened for ADHD based on Connor's scale. 185 of a child out of 1430 were suggested to have ADHD, of which 10 out of them show the signs of ADHD, 76 of them have moderately severe ADHD, and 99 out of them have atypical or severe ADHD based on Connor's scale of ADHD. The study shows that there is a significant relationship between the positive screening of ADHD and gender males (71.35%), females (28.64%), family history (20.5%), nervous system diseases (4.32%), brain damage from trauma (9.72%), smoking habit of the mother (8.64%), smoking during pregnancy (3.78%), mother exposure to second-hand smoking (42.16%), child exposure to a toxic substance like lead during the early life (1.62%), and the preterm labor (15.13%). However, the study shows there is no significant relationship between the positive screening of ADHD with age, drinking alcohol, and central nervous system infection. The prevalence of undiagnosed ADHD is slightly high. Also, it has many causes of ADHD including gender, smoking, parental psychiatric disorders, and obstetric and pregnancy problems.

Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a comprehensive review.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common childhood disorder, with only 2-3% prevalence into adulthood. The epidemiology and proposed causes of ADHD are multifactorial, including genetic, prenatal and environmental influences. The diagnosis of ADHD is often complicated by masking coping mechanisms, an overlap of symptoms with other, more commonly diagnosed disorders. Traditionally, it has been treated with stimulant medications. Non-stimulant options often target norepinephrine and dopamine regulation and are preferred in cases of comorbid substance use disorder, anxiety and other complicating factors, due to an improved side-effect profile and patient preference. They include atomoxetine and viloxazine. The latter, Viloxazine, in the form of extended-release capsules, is the first novel, non-stimulant option approved for adults with ADHD, in the past two decades. Its therapeutic effects are predominantly produced by its action as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and may also modulate the serotonergic system. Viloxazine is relatively safe and effective in treating other disorders such as depression, anxiety, epilepsy and substance use disorder. Its pharmacokinetics includes metabolization by CYP enzymes. As antiepileptics inhibit CYP1A2, therefore, a special consideration would be needed, when co-administering with anti-epileptic drugs. Similarly, individuals with liver or cardiovascular disease and a personal or family history of bipolar disorder require close monitoring, while on this medication. A thorough review of the history, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics and drug-drug interactions has been presented here, with special attention on treatment in adults with comorbid conditions. This study conducted an all-language literature search on Medline, Cochrane, Embase, and Google Scholar until December 2022. The following search strings and Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms were used: "Viloxazine," "ADHD," "Stimulants," and "adult ADHD." We explored the literature on the growing knowledge of Viloxazine. A thorough review of the history, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, and drug-drug interactions are reviewed here with special attention on treatment in adults with comorbid conditions.

Necessity of an Integrative Animal Model for a Comprehensive Study of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Animal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been used to study and understand the behavioral, neural, and physiological mechanisms underlying ADHD. These models allow researchers to conduct controlled experiments and manipulate specific brain regions or neurotransmitter systems to investigate the underlying causes of ADHD and test potential drug targets or treatments. However, it is essential to note that while these models can provide valuable insights, they do not ideally mimic the complex and heterogeneous nature of ADHD and should be interpreted cautiously. Additionally, since ADHD is a multifactorial disorder, environmental and epigenetic factors should be considered simultaneously. In this review, the animal models of ADHD reported thus far are classified into genetic, pharmacological, and environmental models, and the limitations of the representative models are discussed. Furthermore, we provide insights into a more reliable alternative model for the comprehensive study of ADHD.

Knowledge and awareness of dental students on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent psychiatric illness marked by a short span of attention, impulsive decisions, and behavioral issues. They are vulnerable to trauma and dental problems. The dental health team faces a challenge due to behavioral disorders, cognitive deficiencies, and short attention spans. At all stages of prevention and treatment, the management of these children necessitates various changes in approach. To collect data and analyze the awareness level of dental students toward ADHD. An online portal was used for the survey and distributed to 106 dentistry students with self-structured 10 questions. The findings were gathered through the survey portal, and graphs were drawn to compare the results. The SPSS software version 20.0 was used for statistical analysis. The Chi-square test was used to determine the correlation between the variables. Forty percent of those polled are aware of ADHD, which is a mental health condition characterized by excessively active and impulsive behavior. The symptoms of a child with ADHD are aware to 31.43% of voters. About 30.48% of the respondents know the symptoms of an adult with ADHD. About 29.52% of the respondents were aware of the causes of ADHD. To conclude that most dental undergraduates are not aware of the basic characteristics of ADHD. This means that there should be a spreading of knowledge on the subject. A dental student or dentist must know how to manage a patient diagnosed with ADHD. Careful management and treatment will lead to a satisfied and happy patient. Mismanagement may cause problems in the future for both the dentist and the patient.

Elements That Influence the Development of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Children.

Various factors may have a role in the development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although the specific pathophysiology of this disease is still not entirely understood, it is believed to be caused by a mix of genetic, maternal, dietary, and environmental factors. The effect of these factors can determine the severity of ADHD; for example, some of them are dose-dependent, but there is a typical pattern that all are known to be associated with either early childhood exposure or maternal exposure during pregnancy. Some factors share a similar mechanism of affecting pathways and increasing the risk of ADHD.ADHD is not a disorder that can be detected before symptoms appear in a child, making it more challenging to anticipate even if a child has been exposed to a known trigger. Environmental pollutants were investigated, and it was shown that there was a link between ADHD in childhood and exposure to pollutants throughout childhood or during pregnancy. It is well known that maternal health is a significant factor in the unborn child's development in many health aspects. The central nervous system (CNS) is a primary system that can suffer irreversible damage from health conditions, stress, depression, or specific nutritional deficiency when the pregnant mother is subjected to these conditions. Even though numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the probable causes of ADHD, with some of them having robust findings, no conclusive explanation can be provided to identify a definitive cause or a risk factor.

Literature Review: Hubungan Terapi Bermain dengan Daya Konsentrasi pada Anak Gangguan Pemusatan Perhatian dan Hiperaktivitas (GPPH)

Background: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder condition that usually begins in childhood and could persist until adult. This condition has three main symptoms including inattention (lack of attention or reduced attention span), hyperactivity, and highly impulsive behavior. The causes of ADHD are still unclear. ADHD children often has some problems in their social environment, so often shunned by their peers. Objective: This research aims to analyze the correlation between play therapy to the ability to concentrate on children with ADHD. Methods: The chosen research methodology is the literature review. All the data has matched the inclusion criteria and collected from online platforms such as ScienceDirect, Proquest, PubMed, Researchgate, Google Scholar Impact Factor, and Portal Garuda Dikti which was published in 2010-2020. To analyze the research, researchers use the PICO-T method (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Time). Results: From ten journals, three of them showed that play therapy could increase the ability to concentrate on children with ADHD. The rest showed that play therapy could decrease ADHD symptoms and disruptive behavior in ADHD children. In several journals, it is stated that the positive effects of play therapy can last for a certain period. Conclusion: Play therapy can increase concentration ability, reduce symptoms (increased attention, decreased impulsiveness and hyperactivity behavior), and reduce deviant or disruptive behavior in ADHD children

Prenatal risk factors and genetic causes of ADHD in children.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common disease among children; it affected 5-7% of the population in 2015. ADHD is a multifactorial disease, and its etiology is still not clearly understood. This narrative review has been done by searching the PubMed and Embase databases using attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, ADHD, risk factors; genetics; pediatrics; psychiatrics as keywords. ADHD is considered to be a hereditary disorder in which genes play the fundamental role in the pathogenesis; however, findings from genetic-environmental studies support the hypothesis that genetic factors can exert effects on an individual's condition by determining his/her responses to environmental exposures, especially those during the prenatal stage. ADHD is considered as a hereditary disorder in which genes and prenatal risk factors play fundamental roles in the pathogenesis.

Pay Attention to This: A Knowledge Translation Study of ADHD and its Brain Basis to Preservice and In-Service Teachers

The purpose of the present study was to develop a knowledge translation (KT) activity for educators about the brain in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The goal was to increase our participants’ knowledge about ADHD and its brain basis. In addition to neuroscience content, the KT activity included the personal story of the lead researcher’s lived experience with ADHD to provide context, and to inform the participants’ perceptions of ADHD. Framed in an action research paradigm, our study undertook three cycles of reflection, planning, action, and observation to develop and improve a knowledge translation activity. The knowledge translation activity was presented to 48 preservice and in-service teachers and members of the public across Canada, with a mixed methods approach to evaluate the outcomes. The findings demonstrated that this knowledge translation activity was effective in enhancing participant knowledge about ADHD. Quantitively, a non-significant trend was observed that participants shifted their perceptions from social and behavioural causes to brain-based causes of ADHD. Qualitatively, the participants indicated making connections between the personal story and neuroscience. Effective KT requires a review of context vocabulary and opportunity for teacher interaction. Teachers are aware of several behavioural management strategies but do not have a clear idea of how or why they work. Teaching neuroscience to teachers allows for a discussion of neurodiversity and a strength-based approach to programming and accommodation. This research could help guide future knowledge translation research into the benefits of combining personal lived experience with neuroscience content.
 Keywords: knowledge translation, neuroscience, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, lived experience, storytelling, action research, neurodiversity

Ambient Air Pollution (PM2.5 & O3) in Relation to ADHD in NYC Children Age 3-13 Years

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Recent studies have investigated the relationship between air pollution and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with inconsistent results. The specific causes of ADHD remain unknown; however, there is biologic plausibility for etiologic mechanisms linking air pollution exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes, such as ADHD. METHODS: We included 5,032 children ages 3-13 years from the 2017 New York City KIDS survey on children’s health provided by New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, of which 303 had a parent report of ADHD diagnosed by a mental health professional. Using the child’s date of birth and residential neighborhood (sub-borough) during the survey, we linked to daily air pollution data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency fused air quality using surface downscaling (FAQSD) model, focusing on particulate matter 2.5 micrometers in diameter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3). We estimated odds ratios (aOR) adjusting for child’s sex, child’s race/ethnicity, highest parental education, household income, and indoor tobacco use. RESULTS:One-year postnatal PM2.5 and O3 mean, standard deviations and correlation: 11.1±1.5 (ug/m3); 66.3±4.4 (ppb); -0.67 correlation. ADHD was associated with PM2.5, with aOR and 95% confidence interval (CI) per ug/m3 increase in PM2.5: prenatal=1.13(1.01,1.27); postnatal=1.19(1.07,1.31); combined prenatal and postnatal=1.18(1.07,1.31). In contrast, ozone exhibited inverse associations, with aOR and 95%CI per ppb increase in O3 exposures for prenatal=0.92 (0.87,0.98), postnatal=0.85(0.78,0.94), and combined prenatal and postnatal=0.87(0.79,0.94). CONCLUSIONS:Despite air pollution measurement error resulting from geographic aggregation at the neighborhood-level, we observed links between PM2.5 and ADHD that align with prior studies. Our observed inverse associations between O3 and ADHD are unlikely to reflect beneficial effects of ozone given its known harmful impacts and may be artifacts of the negative correlation between ozone and PM2.5. These results provide further support for the adverse impact of air pollutants such as PM2.5 during pregnancy and infancy on the risk for development of ADHD. KEYWORDS: ADHD, Air Pollution, Children's Environmental Health, Neurodevelopmental Outcomes, Ozone, Particulate Matter

Neuroscience approach to ADHD related factors in children and adolescents

The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuropsychological aspects of cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Although many studies on genetic, environmental, and social causes of ADHD have been made, we sought to clarify the mechanism of ADHD development based on more scientific knowledge. The neuroanatomical factors for ADHD are as follows: Children with ADHD have a reduced volume of structural abnormality or volume and white matter in the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and caudate compared with normal children. And neurobiologically, ADHD children and adolescents showed less activity of frontal lobe than normal children in both task memory task and exercise suppression task. In addition, dopamine, a neurotransmitter closely related to the basal ganglia and the prefrontal cortex, was overloaded with dopamine receptors in ADHD children and adolescents, indicating that the amount of dopamine actually acting on the brain was small. An analysis of neuroanatomical and neurophysiological factors for ADHD should provide a good understanding of the individual characteristics of ADHD children. It is hoped that children with ADHD will have a good foundation for brain-based education through strengthening brain plasticity and neural networks in the field of education

PHDA: Afinal, qual a sua origem? Uma revisão dos fatores etiológicos

A Perturbação de Hiperatividade/Défice de Atenção (PHDA) e as suas possíveis causas continuam a ser motivo de controvérsia. Este artigo resulta de uma pesquisa atualizada em diferentes revistas e livros da especialidade e pretende dar uma explicação acerca das principais causas etiológicas da PHDA: (i) genéticas/hereditárias; (ii) neurobiológicas e neuropsicológicas; (iii) outros fatores etiológicos com origem pré, péri e pós-natal; e (iv) fatores contextuais. Atualmente, sabe-se que a PHDA é uma condição de natureza multidimensional, cuja confluência de diferentes fatores endógenos e exógenos resulta numa expressão heterogénea dos seus principais sintomas ao longo da vida (i.e., desatenção, hiperatividade e impulsividade). Conhecendo realmente a natureza do problema, saberemos (todos, mas em particular os professores e outros agentes educativos) melhor como agir com estes sujeitos, principalmente em contexto escolar.

Literature Data Mining and Enrichment Analysis on Top 235 Genes for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Background:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a psychiatric disorder of the neuro-developmental type, marked by an ongoing pattern of inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity, which interferes with functioning or development. The disorder affects approximately 5-7 % children and 2-5 % of adults worldwide. Numerous studies have indicated that genetic factors predominate the causes for ADHD. Nevertheless, no systematic study has summarized these findings and provided an objective and complete list of genes with a reported association to ADHD. Methods:Literature and enrichment metrics analyses were used to discover genes of specific significance associated with ADHD. We conducted a literature data mining (LDM) of over 2,410 articles covering publications from Jan. 1988 to Apr. 2016, where 235 genes were reported to be associated with the disease. Then we performed a gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and a sub-network enrichment analysis (SNEA) to study the functional profile and pathogenic significance of these genes associated with ADHD. Lastly, we performed a network connectivity analysis (NCA) to study the associations between the reported genes. Results:181/235 genes enriched 100 pathways (p<1.1e-007), demonstrating multiple associations with ADHD. Twelve genes were discovered to be associated with ADHD, in terms of both functional diversity and replication frequency, including SLC6A3, DRD4, BDNF, DRD2, HTR2A, DBH, HTR1B, DRD5, GRM7, DRD3, TH and GRIN2A. In addition, one novel gene, SHANK2, was suggested worthy of further study. Moreover, SNEA and NCA results indicated that many of these genes form a functional network, playing roles in the pathogenesis of other ADHD related disorders. Conclusion:Our results suggest that the genetic causes of ADHD are linked to a genetic and functional network composed of a large group of genes. The gene lists, together with the literature and enrichment metrics provided in this study, could serve as groundwork for further biological/genetic studies in the field

Educational practitioners’ beliefs and conceptualisation about the cause of ADHD: A qualitative study

Objectives: Educational practitioners play an important role in the referral and treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study aimed to explore how educational practitioners conceptualise their beliefs about the causes of symptoms of ADHD. Method: Forty-one educational practitioners from schools in the United Kingdom participated in focus groups or individual interviews. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Results: Practitioners’ beliefs fell into two categories: biological and environmental. Practitioners conceptualised the causes of ADHD in lay-theoretical models: a ‘True’ ADHD model considered that symptoms of ADHD in many cases were due to adverse environments; and a model whereby a biological predisposition is the root of the cause of the child’s symptoms. Conclusion: Differential beliefs about the causes of ADHD may lead to practitioners blaming parents for a child’s behaviour and discounting ADHD as a valid condition. This has implications for the effective support of children with ADHD in schools.

Overview of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Young Children.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex disorder, which can be seen as a disorder of life time, developing in preschool years and manifesting symptoms (full and/or partial) throughout the adulthood; therefore, it is not surprising that there are no simple solutions. The aim of this paper is to provide a short and concise review which can be used to inform affected children and adults; family members of affected children and adults, and other medical, paramedical, non-medical, and educational professionals about the disorder. This paper has also tried to look into the process of how ADHD develops; what are the associated problems; and how many other children and adults are affected by such problems all over the world basically to understand ADHD more precisely in order to develop a better medical and or non-medical multimodal intervention plan. If preschool teachers and clinicians are aware of what the research tells us about ADHD, the varying theories of its cause, and which areas need further research, the knowledge will assist them in supporting the families of children with ADHD. By including information in this review about the connection between biological behavior, it is hoped that preschool teachers and clinicians at all levels will feel more confident about explaining to parents of ADHD children, and older ADHD children themselves about the probable causes of ADHD.